JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY ESTABLISHED A.D. 18u4 ROYAL CHARTERS A,D. 1809, 1860, 1899 EDITED BY F. J. CHITTENDEN, F.L.S. VOL. XXXVI. I9IO— II The whole of the Contents of this Volume are Copyright. For permission to reproduce any of the Articles application should be made to the Council of the Society, in whom the Copyright vests. LONDON IPrinteO for tbe IRogal Ibocticultural Society BY SPOTTISWOODE & CO. LTD., NEW-STEEET SQUAEE, E.G. Part I. published July 19, 1910. Part II. published December 6, 1910. Part III. imblished May 30, 1911. CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXVI. PAGE The Adaptation of the Plant to the Soil. By A. D. Hall, M.A., F.E.S 1 Mendel's Law of Heredity and its Application to Hoeticultuke. By C. C. Hurst, F.L.S 22 Some Insect Pests affecting Cultivated Plants in the West Indies. By K. Newstead, M.Sc, A.L.S , 53 Intensive Cultivation in Madeira. By Miss Eleonora Armitage 64 Plant Hygiene. By F. L Baker, A.E.C.S 73 The Use of the Spectroscope in the Study of Plant Life. By Bev. Pro- fessor G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., V.M.H 82 Fruit Production of the British Empire. By the Hon. John McCall, M.D. ... 98 Colonial Fruit Shows. By Eev. W. Wilks, M.A 107 The Park and Gardens of Yildiz, Constantinople. By D. S. Fish, F.E.H.S. 108 Polypodium vulgare and its Varieties, with a Method of Cultivation. By Eev. H. Kingsmill Moore, D.D., F.E.H.S 112 The Origin and History of Our Garden Vegetables and their Dietetic Values. By Eev. Professor G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., V.M.H 115, 345, 590 Notes on Some Hybrid Tuberous Solanums. By Eev. J. Aikman Paton, M.A., B.Sc 127 Eeport on Meteorological Observations at Wisley, 1909. By E. H. Curtis, F.E.Met.Soc 133 The Mutation Theory : a Criticism. By Eev. Professor G. Henslow, M.A., FL.S., V.M.H 144 Commonplace Notes 149, 442, 629 Book Eeviews 156, 425, 646 Additions to the Library, 1909 175 Eeport on Annuals (so-called) at Wisley, 1909 186 Eeport on Leeks at Wisley, 1909-10 213 Eeport on Winter Spinach at Wisley, 1909-10 213 Examinations in Horticulture : Employees in Public Parks, 1910 214 General Examination (Seniors) 451 General Examination (Juniors) 456 Teachers' Examination 459 Notes and Abstracts 218, 467, 754 A Botanizing Expedition to West Australia in the Spring (October), 1909. By Capt. A. A. Dorrien- Smith, D.S.O 285 Trees and Gardens at Athens. By D. S. Fish, F.E.H.S 294 The Wild Flowers of the West of Ireland. By E. Lloyd Praeger, B.A 299 Survivals among Plants of the Past. By Eev. Professor G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., V.M.H 307 Fifty Years among Pansies and Violas. By James Grieve, F.E.H.S 312 Pansies and Violas. By William Cuthbertson, J.P., F.E.H.S 315 Violas at Wisley 322 Two Insects affecting Wheat and Barley Crops. By Fred. Enock, F.L.S. ... 323 How to Build a small Eock Garden. By A. Glutton Brock, F.E.H.S 331 Some Little-known Grapes. By A. C. Smith 339 The Effect of the Frosts of the Winter, 1908-9, on Vegetation. By F. J. Chittenden, F.L.S 358 Nomenclature of Multigeneric Orchid Hybrids 405 The Society's Welcome to Japanese Horticulturists 409 Patrons of the Society 423 Eeport on Carnations at Wisley, 1909-10 445 Report on Pelargoniums at Wisley, 1909-10 449 Eambling Eoses. By G. L. Paul 529 Life a Director of Force in Development and Evolution. By Eev. Pro- fessor G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., V.M.H 534 Plants in Congenial Positions. By Jas. Hudson, V.M.H 539 Observations on the Blossoming of Fruits. By C. H. Hooper, M.E.A.C 548 iv CONTENTS PAGK CiDEE AND Perry Frttit. By B. T. P. Barker, M.A 505 Cider-Making. By B. T. P. Barker, M.A 570 Fruit-Geowing in the Colonies. By H. Hooper, F.R.H.S 574 Pruning and Training of Fruit Trees in Japan. By T. Ikeda, F.R.H.S 581 Cooking of Vegetables. By C. Herman Senn 587 Variation as Limited by the Association of Characters. By A. Worsley 596 The Genus Polianthes. By A. Worsley G03 Report of the Society's Consulting Chemist. By Dr. J. A. Voelcker, M.A., F.I.C., F.L.S 606 Contributions from the Wisley Laboratory : Calcium Cyanamide and Nitrate of Libie. By F. J. Chittenden, F.L.S. ... 610 Potato "Leaf-Blotch" and Potato "Leaf Curl." By A. S. Home, B.Sc, F. G.S 618 The Royal Horticultural Society 624 Wisley School of Horticulture '. 639 The World of Life : an Appreciation and a Criticism. By Rev. Professor G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., V.M.H 640 Report on Early-Flowering Chrysanthemums at Wisley, 1910 672 Report on Gladioli at Wisley, 1910 688 Report on Miscellaneous Annuals, etc., at Wisley, 1910 702 Report on Peas at Wisley, 1910 708 Report on Potatos at Wisley, 1910 726 Report on Salads at Wisley, 1910 732 Report on Summer Spinach at Wisley, 1910 745 Report on Miscellaneous Vegetables at Wisley, 1910 746 Report on Appliances Tried at Wisley, 1910 748 Seeds, Plants, Books, etc., Presented to the Society's Laboratory and Garden, 1910 750 Extracts from Proceedings of the Society : General Meetings ...i, xcv, cxcv Report of Council and Balance Sheet iii Show of Spring Bulbs xvii Deputation to Haarlem ..xxi Daffodil Show xxiv Deputation to Brussels Congress xcvi Temple Show xcvii Visit of Council and Committees to Woburn ciii Holland Park Show , , cvi British Fruit Show cxcvi Report of Conference of Affiliated Societies ccxiv Report on Four Northern Counties Fruit Congress ccxxi Vegetable Exhibition ccxxiii Colonial Fruit Show ccxxix Scientific Committee xxV, cxiii, ccxlvii Fruit and Vegetable Committee xli, cxx, cclv Floral Committee .xlv, cxxv, cclxiii Orchid Committee Ixi, clviii, cclxxxiii Narcissus and Tulip Committee clxxiv Notices to Fellows Ixxviii, clxxvii, ccci General Index ...cccxviii DIRECTIONS TO BINDER. Vol. XXXVI. has been issued in three numbers, each containing the " Journal " proper, paged with Arabic figures, and "■Extracts from the Proceedings,'''' paged with Boman figures. This title and contents sheet should be placed first, and be followed by pages 1 to 284, then by pages 285 to 528, and then by pages 529 to 848. After that should come the ''Extracts from the Proceedings,'''' pages i to xciv, xcv to cxciv, and cxcv to cccxvii, concluding with the Index. JOURNAL - ■ i ■■ ■ OF THE Royal Hortioultueal Society. Vol. XXXVI. 1910. Part I. THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. (I.) By A. D. Hall, M.A., F,R.S. [Being the third Masters Lecture, delivered February 22, 1910.] The subject which I have chosen for the two " Masters Lectures " which I sliaU have the honour of dehvering before you is the adapta- tion of the phint to the soil, .and by that ambiguous title I mean somewhat as follows : In Nature we are always finding plants that possess a very restricted range, being confined entirely to one limited piece of country, such as a mountain range, or even a par- ticular rock area in that range, from which they do not stray into the neighbouring country. In the same way we find that certain plants will grow very well in some gardens, but fail entirely in others. In many cases we can see that those successes or failures are not due to climate in its wide sense, but depend upon the character of the soil. What I wish to discuss in these lectures is the nature of the factors which we can suppose to be in operation. I have chosen this subject partly for its intrinsic interest, as opening up some of the most fundamental questions of plant nutrition; partly for its practical im- portance to the gardener ; but also because the experimental work which I am going to take as a text occupied for some time the attention of that distinguished botanist, the late Dr. Masters, in whose honour these lectures were founded. At the experimental station at Rothamsted a piece of old grass- land was in 1856 divided into plots, to each of which a different manure was applied. The land was afterwards cut for hay, as it has been every year since, and dinhig the whole of the half-century that has elapsed since the experiinent began the same kind of manure has been applied year by year to the same plot. Early in the history VOL. XXXVI. B JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL llOUTiCULTUKAL SOCILTY. of the experiment it became apparent that the manure was not only affecting the weight of hay obtained, but also the character of the vegetation. Accordingly wdiat we may call botanical analyses were made of the vegetation on each of the plots. When the hay was cut a careful sample was taken that would fairly represent the bulk ; it was then brought down to the laboratory, picked apart plant by plant, and sorted into heaps, each of which represented a separate species. The heap for each species thus obtained was then weighed, so that Fig. 1. — Turf from the Plot without Manure for FoRT^r-EiGHT Years. Herbage short, showing a great variety of species. Briza media the most prominent grass. in the end a percentage table was obtained showing the proportion by weight which each grass or clover or weed contributed to the herbage of the plot. Dr. Masters was invited to co-operate in the study of this field from the botanical side. He spent a good deal of time at Eothamsted in the years 1877-80, and eventually co-operated with Lawes and Gilbert in an extensive paper, which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions " in 1880. The changes which had been effected by the different manures are still more manifest to-day after the treatment has been persisted in for THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 3 more than half a century, and the photographs (figs. 1-4) of samples of tm-f taken from the different plots will sho\Y how the vegetation has been revolutionized by the different systems of manuring adopted. At the same time, the diagrams (figs. 5-7) also serve to show how greatly particular species are encouraged by some of the manures, whereas other species are depressed and driven off the plots altogether. Here, then, are examples of distinctive floras (and in early June the plots look as though they belonged to different parts of the Fig. 2. — Turf from the Plot which has received Phosphates and Potash, but no Nitrogen. Clovers, Lathyrus, and other leguminous plants constitute half the herbage. country) that have been brought about by artificial means. The factors concerned are all on record and may fairly be expected to dis- close the causes which have led to the redistribution of the herbage. In certain cases the explanation seems obvious enough ; for example, we can see why the manure containing phosphates and potash but no nitrogen should encourage the leguminous plants until they become a good half of the herbage. Such leguminous plants can draw the nitrogen they require from the atmosphere by the aid of the bacteria present in the nodules of their roots. In consequence a mixture of B 2 6 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. rows or under the shade of trees? Many similar queslions can be asked, but we are very far from being in a position to supply the answers. With such positive results before us of the association of particular plants with differences in the chemical treatment of the soil it would seem not unreasonable to expect that an analysis of a plant and of the PIct 'J 4-18 7 5 17 4-2 9 II 14 Fig. 5. The vertical columne show the percentage of Festuca ovina in the herbage of the plots numbered below, the manuring of which, was as follows : — Plot 3. — Unmanured. Plot 4-1. — Superphosphate only. Plot 8. — Superphosphate, Magnesia, and Soda; no Potash. Plot 7. — Superphosphate, Magnesia, Soda, and Potash. Plot 5. — Nitrogen only as Ammonium Salts. Plot 17. — Nitrogen only as Nitrate of Soda. Plot 4-2. — Ammonium Salts and Superphosphate; no Potash. Plot 9. — Complete manure. Nitrogen as Ammonium Salts. Plot 11. — Complete manure. Nitrogen as Ammonium Salts in excess. Plot 14. — Complete manure, Nitrogen as Nitrate of Soda. soil in which it usually grows might reveal the presence in both of some common substance which accounts for their association. An analyst, indeed, is not infrequently asked to examine a particular soil and determine what is lacking in order to fit it for the growth of this or that plant. As soon as that is attempted, however, certain difhcul- THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 7 ties become apparent. In the first place, all plants show much the same composition as regards the substances they derive from the soil; if we ignore the carbon which a plant obtains from the atmosphere the other elements present are restricted in number and are identical in all plants. Table I. will illustrate the fact that variations in the composition of the ash of the same plant grown under different circumstances ,5% — J2S 10 7-5 6 2-5 ^lot 3 4-18 7 5 17 4-2 9 II 14 Fig. 6. — Percentage of Trifolium repens, T. pratense, and Lotus corniculatus taken together. For manuring, see fig. 5. are of the same order as the differences in the composition of the ash of very distinct plants given in Table II. (see p. 9). It has been the custom to draw distinctions between silica plants like cereals, the ash of which contains a good deal of silica, lime plants like clover, and potash plants like some of the root-crops ; but these, distinctions break down on experiment, for it is not found to be neces- sary or even beneficial to give any of these plants a special dose of its characteristic constituent. . . ■ ■ 8 JOI RXAL (^1^ ITTF. ROYAL Ilon'ricriVri UAL BCK'lhyrY. Furllionnore. if llic ;tii,il\ s(>s of nil |il;iii(s -avo \cry iimcli nlikc, ;ni even i;i'e;iter siuiibn It \ is show ii lt\ ,'W»ils. TiiMc III. t's llic clKMiiii-;!! aii;il\s(.'s of ,1 iiiiiiil>or o\ soils, ir|>rt.'siMi(,iii<;- piMcticnl ly nil Hit" lype-s met witli 111 tills country, excepl the (I'lu^ j)(\iis. The j^i'entcM- ])[\rl of :i soil C(^nsists iiisohihle iiinterinl whieh is of no ser\ice lo the jilanl-, but in the lest we nlways lind sinnll nnuv.ints of nitrogen. |)hosj)hori(' acid, lime, mn^nesin, etc. ; just the siihsl nnec^s, in fnef, that, we (ind in Fig. 7. — Percentage of Rumex Acetosa. For manuring, see fig. 5. all plants, and this amomit, if small, is still sufficient for fifty or a hundred years' growth of the plants wliich occupy the land. We must not expect, then, to find in the plant that grows thus con- fined to a veiy small area some particular chemical substance which occurs in the soil of that area and nowhere else ; in fact, we can rarely or never trace any such simple and direct action of a particular substance in the soil upon the plant. All plants contain the same elementary sub- stances— carbon, nitrogen, potash, etc.; the differences come in the way these units are corjibined, just as Paris and London are alike built THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 9 Table I. Percentage Composition of the AsJi of Mangolds grown i)i various localities. Uumanured Grown Grown Long near 30 miles Eed the from • 1 2 3 sea the sea Pure ash 7-84 7-59 5-48 10-90 6-72 5-39 Ferric oxide ..... 0 71 0-36 0-39 0-60 U DO 1 .OA Lime 2-77 3-25 3-50 2-58 3-35 7-53 Magnesia ..... 3-56 5-84 4-63 2-69 2-69 3-23 Potash 37-06 64-52 66-80 38-33 11-21 18-40 Soda 33-88 6-86 10-91 31-17 56-40 43-97 Phosphoric acid .... 3-97 1302 8-20 8-25 5-00 7-57 Sulphuric acid .... 4-22 2-99 2-54 2-41 6-04 3-06 Chlorine 10-98 2-43 3-91 18-13 15-29 12-30 Silica 5-24 0-68 0-36 0-31 2-74 5-42 Table II. Percentage Composition of the Ash of different Plants grown at Rothamsted. Wheat Barley Clover (1st crop) Swedes Mangold Ferric oxide . 0-95 104 105 2-38 0-89 Lime .... 4-30 9-13 36-98 23-43 9 72 Magnesia 3-04 4-34 5-00 2-76 3-27 Potash .... 17-42 15-35 13-32 26-24 29-68 Soda .... . . 0-11 2-31 0-70 3-52 16-72 Phosphoric acid . . : 10-99 11-74 3-54 6-76 10-23 Sulphuric acid 3-60 3-98 2-08 13-33 4-51 Carbonic acid 1-61 34-39 16-14 17-07 Chlorine ! ] 1-60 1-75 2-51 3-91 8-65 Silica .... . 58-35 49-14 1-02 2-43 1-20 Table III. Percentage Cojuposition of Typical Soils of Various Formations. Bagshot Sand London Clay Chalk from Thanet Thanet Sand Brick Earth Folke- stone Sand Rag- stone Weald Clay Moisture .... 0-94 5-09 2-93 1-62 - 2-45 0-98 2-03 6-09 Loss on ignition 4-44 7-42 5-06 3-46 4-65 4-53 4-82 10-59 Nitrogen .... 0-006 0-172 0-194 0-156 0-120 0-170 0-187 0-327 Alumina .... 0-11 11-75 3-60 2-34 3-33 Nil 3-58 10-45 Oxide of Iron . 0-32 6-04 2-44 2-10 2-50 0-97 i 3-55 5-90 Oxide of Manganese . Nil 0-135 0-023 0-135 0-054 Nil 0-05 0-034 Magnesia .... 0-03 1-24 0-64 0-26 0-52 0-074 0-40 0-55 Lime .... 0-08 0-58 0-82 0-34 2-14 2-11 Carbonate of Lime . Nil 0-22 3-70 0-33 0-40 3-13 1-76 Potash .... 0-062 1-44 0-459 0-354 0-305 0-093 0-604 0-757 " Available " Potash . 0-035 0-015 0-019 0-010 0-006 0-028 0-014 Phosphoric acid 0-017 0-111 0-094 0-095 0-074 0-047 0-373 0-180 " Available " Phosphoric acid .... 0-012 0012 0-044 0-008 0005 0-184 0014 Sulphuric acid . 0-014 0-054 0-040 0-010 0-03 0-069 005 0-138 10 JOURNAL OF THE KO\AL HORTICULTURAL 80(^1 iVr^'. out of stone nnd wi^od. l^riclvs nnd morim", willi roinnrknl^lo (livn-.i^'cnces in the results — orgciuH^s \\liu*h nre ronlly due lo tli(^ (•li;ir;ic((MS of the arcliitects, and not to the materials employed. If, ho\A-ever, the chemical composition of the soil has so little effect upon the plant, how comes it that such enormous changes have been effected in the tlora of the grass plots of Eothamsted by chemical differ- ences of manuring ? The explanation is to be found in the fact that on these grass plots a very intense struggle for existence is taking place; every species is trying to enlarge its borders at the expense of its neigh- bours, and if it receives ever so slight an advantage in the competition this advantage accumulates from year to year until tlie species becomes dominant. It is the presence of this factor of competition in the Eothamsted grass plots and in Nature which magnifies a small advan- tage or disadvantage until it may become the determining cause of the dominance or the entire disappearance of a given species on a par- ticular soil. In fact, in many cases competition is the chief factor in Nature, and a plant occupies its particular situation solely because it there can escape from what would otherwise be a strangling com- petition. To take a well-known example, the yellow Horned Poppy {Glaucinm luteum) is one of the most strictly localized plants in the British flora. It occupies the shingle banks of our coasts, and, exposed to violent alternations of temperature, fierce sun and wind, spray and drifting sand, it flourishes exceedingly, and would seem to have found conditions particularly congenial. Yet, if we introduce its seedlings into an ordinary rich garden soil, the Horned Poppy develops to an un- precedented degree, and shows by its vigour how much it can enjoy a fat living in comfortable surroundings. In fact, the Horned Poppy does not occupy the shingle bank because it likes it, but simply because it can exist there, whereas the grass and other plants that can crowd it out of existence on ordinary soils are unable to follow. " It does not love the shower nor seek the cold — That neither is its courage nor its choice — • But its necessity in being old." We must expect, then, in studying the adaptation of plants to particular soils to find no very apparent factors at work. We shall have to look deeply into the requirements of the plant, and try to pick out the comparatively small causes in the soil which act advantageously or disadvantageously, recognizing how operative these small causes can become under the stress of competition. THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 11 THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. (II.) By A. D. Hall, M.A., F.E.S. [Being the fourth Masters Lecture, read March 22, 1910.] In the previous lecture I tried to put before you some of the difh- culties which attach to all attempts to correlate the plant with the composition of the soil on which it grows, and I liope that I have made it plain that many of the expectations which have been formed of the value of a soil analysis are doomed to disappointment'. So similar are the substances found in all crops and in all soils that it becomes im- possible to draw any d priori conclusions from chemical compositions alone why a given plant inhabits only a given range of country. Let us now begin to attack the problem from a different point of view and study the distributions of a few crops over a small range of country. Despite their greater adaptability, I take crops for my subject rather than wild plants, because we know so much more about their habits and their requirements. The map (Fig. 8) shov/s the distribution of fruit Fig 8. — Distribution of Fruit in the Counties of Kent, Surrey and Sussex. One dot equals 50 acres. in the year 1908 in the counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, a district which includes some of the most densely planted land in Great Britain, together with other areas where no fruit at all is grown. Each of the little dots in the map represents fifty acres of fruit; unfortunately, the agricultural returns from which the map has been compiled do not differentiate between the different kinds. Still, we know by experience very well what to expect in the different areas. It will be noticed that the fruit-growing on a commercial scale is closely confined to certain areas, and since the whole district enjoys much the same climate, and has very similar railway facilities, the distribution is most likely to have been due to the character of the soil. 1-2 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOUiLTi . Indeed, if we now examine ibe geological niaj) of tliis area we begin to see tliat the fruit lies almost wboUy on certain formations. In North Kent it is on the Thanet sands and the deep loams above the Chalk ; in East Kent, between Cbatham and Oanterbuiy and Sandwich, it is again the Thanet sands and Chalk loams that carry fruit, with the addition of a new formation — the Brick Earth. In Mid-Kent the fruit lies almost wholly upon what is known as the Lovvei* Greensand. In this case, howeyer, we see that it is not only the geological formation that determines the presence of fruit, because if w^e follow this same Greensand formation east of Sevenoaks the fruit disappears, and in its place we come to barren w^astes covered with heather and pine. Any- body passing through one of these fruit areas to anotlier would per- ceive that the soils possess certain features in common ; they are mostly what a farmer w^ould call light loams. This at once calls our attention to what we may call the farmer's way of classifying soils; he calls them loams, or sands, or clays, and defines them as heavy or light to work. We can now give precision to this farmer's point of view^ by making what w^e call a mechanical analysis of the soil, and this mechanical analysis at once gives us a clue to the distribution of any special crop like fruit. Every soil is built up of a mass of particles of various sizes, and a mechanical analysis is merely a process by w^hich the soil is sorted out into groups or particles of a specified size. If we dismiss from our consideration for a time its chemical nature, we see that a soil consists of a mineral framework of little pieces of rock of all sizes ; when these are coarse and palpable w^e describe the soil as a sand; when they become so fine as to be undiscernible separately by the eye and almost imperceptible w^hen the material is rubbed between the fingers we get a clay. A mechanical analysis sorts out all the various-sized particles making up the soil, and collects them into specified groups, so that we obtain for any particular soil the proportions in which these groups are mixed. The grades of particles into which we have been accustomed to divide soils are as follows: — (1) Material about | inch diameter is called Stones and Gravel, and is not reckoned in the analysis. (2) Particles between | inch and i inch diameter. Fine Gravel. (3) „ „ Coarse Sand. (4) „ lis n eh " Fine Sand. (^) » 625 J' 2^ " Sil^- (6) „ ^ioo » iiioo Fine Silt. (7) Particles less than j^^o i^^^h, Clay. Of course, in this connection the terms sand, silt, and clay possess the special meanings defined above. Soils are mixtures of all these grades of particles ; the coarsest sandy soil will contain some clay in this special sense, while the heaviest clay soil will rarely contain 50 per cent, of it. The mechanical analysis of a soil simply takes up the farmer's point of view when he speaks of sand or loam or clay, and by reducing it to figures extends it and gives it precision. THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 13 On the size of the particles, whether fine ones or coarse ones pre- dominate, depend such fundamental facts as how the soil will work, whether light or heavy, how soon will it he fit to work after rain, whether it will be cold and late or warm and early, its drought-resisting power, &c. The size of the particles making up the soil regulates, in fact, the water supply, and that is the biggest factor in producing a crop. If we now put together the mechanical analyses of all the soils on which fruit is found to grow successfully we shall find great similarity of type, whatever may have been the geological origin of the soil. For example. Table IV. shows the analyses of such a series, in which it will be seen that the good fruit soils all contain more than 12 but less than 17 per cent, of the very fine material which an analyst calls clay, and which does more than anything else to form the character of the soil. In all the soils, again, we find sand and silt, generally to the extent of from 60 to 70 per cent, of the whole, but as a^ rule there is not much coarse sand present. By way of contrast the analyses of two or three other soils are added. At one end of the scale come soils so light that they are only suited to strawberries or nursery stock which is not required to stand more than two or three years in the same place. On the heavy soils, at the other end of the scale, only occasional apple orchards occur, and are so unhealthy that they would be commercially unprofitable. Thus, by the consideration of such a map and of a long series of analyses of the soils in the district covered by the map it becomes possible to formulate the mechanical composition of what we may call a fruit soil, and again by the analysis of any unknown soil to decide whether it is fit for fruit-growing or not, provided the other conditions of exposure and elevation are suitable. Table IV. Mechanical Analysis of Fruit Soils. Formation Bagshot Sand Thanet Sand Thanet Sand Brick Earth Lower Green- sand Chalk Clay with Flints Hast- ings Beds Weald Clay Locality Wis ley Swanley Selling Wick- ham East Farleigh Minster Molash Rolven- den Sutton Valence Only Nursery Stock Straw- berries Mixed Fruit Mixed Fruit Mixed Fruit Mixed Fruit Cherries, Apples Apples, Black Currants Apples, Bad* Fine gravel Coarse sand Fine sand . Silt . Fine silt Clay . 0-1 18-1 70-1 3- 8 4- 1 3-8 1-3 10-9 62-3 14-2 5-4 5-9 0-8 5- 3 60-3 15-4 6- 2 12-0 0-4 0-9 32-4 46-7 8-4 11-2 2-7 10-9 35-3 22-8 12-9 15-4 0-7 9-7 38-3 27-9 , 7-4 160 1-4 1-6 39-2 29-2 11-9 16-7 0-4 0-7 27-3 33-3 21-9 16-4 2-3 4-4 12-5 15*1 25-9 39-8 * This soil is really too heavy for fruit, though apple orchards are found upon it. When we turn to other crops we find similar correlation between their distribution and the mechanical composition of the soil. The maps (figs. 9, 10, 11) and Tables V. VI. VII. show this in the case of hops and barley and potatos. A plant which is grown on such a scale must 14 JOURNAL OF TTTF, ROYAL ITORI^TCTTLTnRAL ROCTF.TY. be one (^f tlie lensi rnsfulions ns io ^o\], otluM'wisc^ il. could not, liiive come iuio the w iek^spread cmi]1 i\ :it ion wliu'li makers \l :i fiu'm ('fop; so that if we can apply this same mechanical analysis to the soil npon \^'hich many localized plants are found we should expect an even closer Fig. 9. — Distribution of Hops One dot equals 20 acree. Fig. 10. — Distribution of Barley. One dot equals 40 acres. Fig. 11. — Distribution of Potatos. One dot equals 20 acres. correlation between the distribution of the plant and the mechanical composition of the soil. We have not as yet, however, decided as to what the mechanical composition of the soil represents to the plant, which obviously cares nothing for the size of the particles as such. The size of the particles, THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. . 15 however, does regulate the supply of water to the plant, because soils hold water in virtue of the amount of surface they possess, and this Table V. Mechanical Analysis of Hop Soils. Formation Tbanet . Sand Newiiig- tou Alluvial Tbanet Sand Brick Eartb Teyn- bam . Lower Green- sand Clay with Flints Loyter ton Brick Earth Ickham Upper Green- sand Hast- ings Beds Weald Clay Hast- ings Beds Locality Yalding Barton East Far- leigb Beutley Eolveu- den« Wood- church* Ew- hurst * Fine gravel . 0-5 3-5 0-3 0-8 2-7 0-9 0-3 6-6 0-5 0-7 3-4 Coarse sand 18-2 14-4 2-5 2-4 11-0 1-3 0-8 5-5 0-6 3-0 2-1 Fine sand . 61-6 440 38-0 44-2 35-3 2S-2 2G-3 29-7 27-3 171 15-4 Silt . 89 18-2 39-6 29-6 22-8 46-5 47-7 29-0 33-3 28-2 23-8 Fine silt 4-3 9-9 6-9 9-7 12-8 8-9 9-2 14-4 21-8 27-6 26-1 Clay . 6-5 10-0 12-7 13-3 15-4 14-2 15-7 14-8 16-5 23-4 29-2 * These soils only grow the coarser varieties of hops successfully. Table VI. Mechanical Afialysis of Barley Soils. Formation Lower Green- sand Lower Green- sand Tbanet Sand Lower Green- sand Tbanet Sand Brick Eartb Chalk Lower Green- sand Clay with Flints Chalk Locality Shalford Bashing Gold- stoue Eepton Obislet Shop- wyke Minster Alding- ton Loyter- ton Sutton * by Dover Fine gravel . Coarse sand Fine sand . Silt . Fine silt Clay . Carbonate ) of lime ) 2- 7 56-2 28-0 5-2 3- 8 41 1-2 52-9 21-4 7-1 7-1 10-3 0-2 16-4 48-2 18-6 70 9-6 2-8 15-2 48-8 15-5 7-2 10-5 1-4 5-8 35- 2 36- 5 8-1 130 0-8 10 30-8 33-5 20-2 13-7 0-6 9-7 38-4 27-9 7-4 16-0 1-1 19-9 341 11-3 11-3 22-3 1-3 1-2 35-7 290 110 21-8 0- 6 1- 8 16-4 24-7 7-6 27-7 20-3 * Though this soil contains a rather high proportion of clay for barley, it is kept open and easy- working by the large amount of carbonate of bme that is present. Table VII. Mechanical Analysis of Potato Soils. Formation Tbanet Lower Green- sand Bagshot Tbanet Bagshot Tbanet Chalk London Clay Locality Swauley Nutfield Bisley Teyubam Claygate Green- bithe Minster Ohessing- ton Fine gravel Coarse sand Fine sand . Silt . Fine silt . Clay . 1-3 10-9 62-3 14-2 5-4 5-9 3-2 50-8 250 3-8 9-6 7-6 0-2 30-9 49-7 5- 6 6- 1 7- 5 0-5 lo-9 51-8 16-1 5-8 9-9 0-8 27-2 42-2 12-3 6-7 10-8 0-3 2-2 75-2 40 5-4 12-9 0-6 17-1 36-4 24-6 6-8 14-5 0-7 19-3 35-8 16-9 10-2 171 surface must increase the smaller the particles into which the given weight of soil is divided. It has been estimated, for example, that the total surface of the particles in a cubic foot of loam amounts to about 16 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. ail ocre : in a clay soil io aliout foui' at-roy. A soil absorbs water and retains it against drainago in virliie of llio wet skin held on the surface by the attraction of each particle. Not only does the soil thus refuse to part \Nith water to the drains through tliis surface pull, but it also liolds water against the roots of the plant, so that sometimes the plant may be running sliort of water in a clay soil which still appears to be comparativel\' moist. Again, this attraction of the surface of all solid materials for water enables soils to suck up water from the subsoil during a period of drought in quantities dependent u])on the grade of the soil. Thus, the mechanical analysis determines one of the greatest factors in the nutrition of the plant — namely, the supply of water. At the same time the temperatirre is also conditioned by the water supply, because the great agent in maintaining soils at a low tempera- ture is the amount of heat that is always being drawn away by the evaporation of water from the surface of the soil. Hence, a soil which holds a great deal of water close to the surface is always a cold soil, and artihcial drainage is quite capable of making a difference of more than a degree in the average temperature of such a soil. Again, the moisture evaporating fi'om tlie soil determines to a considerable extent the humidity of the air immediately above it — that is, of the air which surrounds an ordinary plant; and, as every gardener accustomed to the management of greenhouses is w^ell aware, the humidity of the air is a potent factor in the well-being of a plant. The structure of the soil as revealed by mechanical analysis forms, then, the chief of what we might call the causes determining the asso- ciation of given plants with a given soil. We say the chief " because on it hangs w^ater supply, temperature, and humidity. Of course, the kind of climate set up by the structure of the soil may be greatly modified, or even overridden, by those" other factors which determine local climate — such as elevation, aspect, and slope. We know, for example, that fields just at the bottom of a valley are subject to the most violent alternations of temperature. On a sunny day the tem- peratures will rise to a much higher degree at the bottom of the valley, simply because the moist air there collected acts like the glass of the greenhouse^ — lets the sun's rays through, but arrests the dark heat rays reflected from the ground, and so causes the heat to accumulate. On a still night, however, the valley temperatures are at the lowest, because the chill air from all the neighbouring slopes becomes denser and rolls down into the valley. These violent alternations of tempera- ture may render the valley unsuited to the growth of certain plants, independently of the occurrence in such places of early autumn and late spring frosts, which in themselves render such a situation unsuit- able for the commercial growth of fruit. Eeturning now to the practical problem, as it presents itself to the gardener or fruit-grower, of whether a particular piece of land is suit- able to his purpose, I think ] may fairly claim that the mechanical analysis of the soil does give us information winch can be trusted if it is used intelligently with dde consideration of the other local climatic THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 17 factors wiiich I have just indicated. For example, if aii uukiiown soil is subjected to analysis one is able at once to say if the proportion of sand and clay are such as brmg it within the limits which have been found by experience suitable to the growing of ordinary mixed fruit. We can further say that the soil might, on the one hand, be of a character that would not permit of the long duration of fruit-trees; or, on the other hand, of a character that would result in very slow growth. We can also indicate the methods which might be adopted to ameliorate the soil. Again, we might begin by the analysis of a number of soils on which roses are known to grow well, and so obtain a general idea of the composition of a rose soil, from which we may predict the behaviour towards roses of any unknown soil by its analysis alone. It should be noticed, however, that we are forced to proceed empiri- cally; we have to analyse a number of soils which experience has shown to be suited to the plant in question before we can arrive at our type. In the present state of our knowledge it would be impossible to predict d priori the requirements of a plant which has not been under trial. This impossibility is particularly due to the fact that very little experi- mental work has yet been done on the nutrition requirements of the plant under natural conditions. To take an example, we know that all leaves are constantly transpiring water, and that the amount of water evaporated through the plant will be roughly proportionate to the amount of growth it makes ; certain measurements have been made which indicate that for every pound of dry matter grown by the plant from 250 to 500 pounds of water will be evaporated thi^ough the leaves. The measurements also indicate that this factor must be a variable one, depending upon the dryness of the air, the amount of sunshine, wind, and similar external conditions ; but no exact experimental know- ledge is available. Again, we are accustomed to regard a waxy coating to the leaves, coverings of hair, &c., as devices for checking trans- piration, though how far they do so has not, I believe, been experi- mentally demonstrated. Our knowledge, then, of the associations of given plants with given types of soil as determined by mechanical analysis will remain empirical for some time to come, and in our empirical method we must beware of being deceived through the effects of competition in nature. To return to our old illustrations, the mechanical analysis of a shingle bank would not reveal the kind of material the horned poppy likes best, although it is only to be found* in such a habitat. In order to find the best type we must make our comparisons under strictly similar conditions, such as is attained in land under cultivation. Turning now to the aspect of the soil which we have hitherto set aside— the chemical factors determining its association with given plants — the most important is probably the acidity or otherwise of the soil. As a rule our cultivated soils are kept neutral or in a very faintly alkaline condition by the presence of carbonate of lime, but in nature many soils occur which have developed a faintly acid reaction because they started with little or no carbonate of lime and the decay of vegetable matter VOL. xxxvi. c 18 JOIVRXAL OF THK KDVAL HOK TiCr l/lT HAL SOC'lK^^. hns i^-ivon vise to snmll quantities of acid. Tlieso acid soils carry very disliiu'tno l\ [1CS of N electa I icMi, tlic plants of wliicli ai'c often iatiolei'ani of transference to a non-acid soil. The reason does not appear to lie in the plant itself, for so far as we can learn from water-culture experiments plants grow freely and well in a medium that is distinctly acid wlien no other disturbing factors are allowed to come into play. In the field, however, the acidity or alkalinity of the soil determines entirely the character of the micro-flora which plays so large a part in the nutrition of the higher plants. Under normal conditions plants are dependent for their nutrition upon the work of bacteria in the soil; the complex nitrogenous bodies contained in plant and animal residues are attacked by various groups of bacteria and converted into successively simpler com- pounds until they reach the state of ammonia. Ammonia does not long remain in a soil, but is in its turn converted into nitrates by the action of other bacteria. From these nitrates the normal cultivated plant obtains its nitrogen, though we are beginning to suspect that with the nitrogen supply of many plants ammonia is more concerned than has hitherto been supposed. For the proper working of these groups of bacteria a neutral or evidently alkaline medium is requisite, such as the presence of carbonate of lime ensures, while a very slight acidity is sufficient to suspend the action of nearly all such bacteria. On the other hand, we find the micro-fungi, the moulds, the wild yeasts, and other kindred organisms, which are also common in such a medium as the soil, are best favoured by a slightly acid medium, and may in their turn be repressed and rendered inoperative by making the medium neutral. Thus in an acid soil the normal bacterial actions are comparatively suspended, their place being taken by parallel changes brought about by fungi and moulds. The effects upon a higher vegetation of these differences in the micro-flora are very great. Experimentally it is on some of the plots at Woburn and Eothamsted that these effects can best be studied, because there certain portions of the land have been rendered acid artificially through the long-continued use of ammonium salts as manure. For reasons which need not be enlarged upon here, ammonium salts act as an acid, and unless the soil starts with a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime this acidity eventually accumulates until its effect becomes per- ceptible. On the Woburn plots which have become acid, barley now refuses to grow and the plots become covered with spurrey, a weed which is found only sparsely elsewhere on the same land, but which invades and completely swamps all other vegetation on the plots in question. At Bothamsted the acidity does not occur in the arable land but on certain of the grass plots, and there the surviving grasses have developed a habit of growing in tufts, with bare spaces between on which dead vegetation accumulates in a form resembling peat. It is clear that the formation of peat must be associated with the acid condition and the consequent suspension of bacterial actions. THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 19 As soon as the land is limed and made neutral, the hacteria come back and the peaty material slowly disappears, being oxidized and burnt up by the bacteria which re-establish themselves. In other respects the acidity or otherwise of the soil has a very potent effect upon certain special kinds of plants. We know that many plants, notably heaths, Coniferae, and orchids, do not draw their nutriment directly from the soil, but depend upon the mycelium of certain fungi which clothes their roots. Such plants grow, as a rule, in acid soil, where the production of ammonia and nitrates by bacteria is stopped, so that the plants depend for their nitrogen supply upon the power that the fungi associated with their roots (mycorhiza) possess of attacking and digesting the otherwise in- soluble nitrogen compounds of the humus. The mycorhiza plants may even be recognized by their external appearance. Thus, as in the Rothamsted experiments, cereals fed upon ammonia are shorter in the straw and broader in the leaf with a deeper green colour than those supplied with nitrate, so, according to Stahl, the plants fed by mycorhiza possess a peculiar sm.ooth shiny foliage and a distinctive colour. Naturally enough when any of these plants dependent upon mycorhiza are transferred to an alkaline soil in which their associated fungi do not flourish, they in their turn lose their vitality and may succumb entirely. Even if the plant is given a soil rich in humus but not containing the fungus with which it is usually associated it may refuse to grow. This has been found to be the case with orchids, the seeds of which only develop properly if sown on a medium partly derived from that on which the parent plant was growing. So numerous are these cases of the association of a particular plant with acid or alkaline soils that it would seem to be a point worth watch- ing by the practical cultivator of some of the difficult plants like alpines. It is, indeed, customary to consider whether the habitat of the plant is sandy, peaty, calcareous, or granitic, but two distinct factors are involved and may be confused. The soil may be acid or neutral, but it is not necessarily acid if it is sandy or even peaty; secondly, the soil may be calcareous or not, but if calcareous it is never acid. It is a fact of observation that certain plants are rarely or never found upon calcareous soils; for example, the foxglove, corn marigold, the sheep's sorrel, the cultivated Rhododendron, and many of the Ericas seem to be intolerant of such soils. In such cases, however, we have probably not positive poisoning by the lime but negative action due to the suppression of the acidity which these plants require. In other words, such plants are probably positively acid-humus-loving rather than lime-hating, though as the presence of carbonate of lime is incompatible with acidity they may appear to be negatively correlated w^th lime. On the other hand, it can hardly be doubted that there is what we might call a positive calcareous factor, so specially associated are certain plants with soils rich in carbonate of lime, and so entirely are they absent from other soils which are perfectly neutral, but which c 2 20 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTK ULTURAT, SOCII^VrY. contain only a small proportion of carbonate of ]inie. Anyone botanizing in the South of England will have noticed how strictly certain shrubs like the wayfaring tree, the dog-wood, the wild Clematis, and flowering-plants like Hip'pocrepis and some of the orchids are confined to chalk and limestone districts; he caimot doubt that these plants do in some way depend upon the rid mess of their soil in carbonate of lime. Among the leguminous plants we find some of the most remarkable associations of particular species with calcareous soils. Some species, like the Hippocrepis we have mentioned, never occur elsewhere, while most of the cultivated species, particularly sainfoin and the clovers, are most at home on a calcareous soil. There are, however, others, like some of the species of Lathyrus and Vicia, lupins and serradella, which are typical sand-loving plants and seem to avoid the calcareous soils. Here would seem tO' be a case of aissociation tliat lends itself to experiment, yet as soon as such plants are placed vmder pot or trial plot conditions they seem indifferent to the amount of carbonate of lime in the soil. A year or two ago I selected some of these typical non-calcareous leguminous plants and had them grown at Woburn on a sand that contained practically no carbonate of lime, and at Eothamsted in a soil that was well limed at the outset. Both sets of plants grew well, and when an analysis was made of their ashes, as Table YIII. shows, they contained very similar amounts of lime, from whichever soil the plant had been derived. Table VIII. Percentage of Lime in Ash of Leguminous Plants Species Woburn (no CaOOg in soil) Eothamsted (0-6 per cent. OaCo., in soil) 19-0 26-9 Ornithopus sativus 27-1 20-7 Lupinus albus .... 18-3 15-9 L. varius var. angustifolius . 36-1 38-3 L. luteus ..... ■ 30-6 31-9 Vicia fulgens .... 23-9 27-6 Lathyrus Cicera .... 18-3 15-6 Other successes have been reported when attempting to grow presumably lime-hating plants in calcareous soils, and one can only suppose that carbonate of lime does not inhibit plants like lupins, but on the other hand it favours the plants like Hippocrepis. It is a positive and not a negative factor. The experiments fail because we cannot introduce the element of competition in order to deter- mine how much greater the vitahty of the plant is in one case than the other. Under experimental conditions both sets of plants are relieved from competition and grow up to the maximum of their food and water supply, though the vitality of one may be so much the less that it would succumb under any stress of competition. We have, indeed, to bear in mind that the vigour which a plant can show, for example, by the amount of growth it makes, is little or no index to vitality. THE ADAPTATION OF THE PLANT TO THE SOIL. 21 A direct example of that may be seen at Eotliamsted ; in the year 1888 a portion of the wheat field was not hai^ested but left to reproduce itself naturally. A good crop came up in the following year from the self-sown seed, but throve very badly in the competition that ensued with the weeds. After four years only a few dozen starved ears of wheat could be found over the whole area, and since that time the wheat has entirely disappeared, and the land is occupied by intrusive grass and weeds of all kinds. Here, then, we see that wheat, which has been educated to yield a great bulk of material, may yet become incapable with all its vigour of competing with the plants which we typically call weeds, when both are left to struggle on the same piece of ground. Thus it will be seen that the experimental study of the association of particular plants with particular soils is fraught with difficulties of interpretation, so easily do secondary factors come into play and obscure the point at issue. It has been my object in these lectures thus to point out the main factors which determine some causal connection between plant and soil. There are certain special cases where the presence of particular constituents in the soil, e.g. zinc, seems to produce pathological dis- turbances in the plant to the extent of giving rise to something which almost appears to be a new species. We have even met with reports indicating the possibility of thus bringing about those teratological changes which were studied by the distinguished man in whose honour these lectures were founded. The evidence is still too scrappy to be worth theorizing about ; it is experiment that is called for in all these directions. The object of my lectures has been more to indicate the existence of these problems and the state of our ignorance than to provide you with any consistent theory or body oi information. Obviously there cannot be a complete science of horticulture until we have ascertained both the most fitting soils in which tO' grow our garden plants and the reasons that underlie the choice, but it is by experiment and by experiment alone that such knowledge will be attained. [Note. — Figures 1-7 are reproduced from the author's Book of the Rothamsted Experiments, and figs. 8-11 from the Journal of the Farmers'' Club, by kind permission of Mr. John Murray and the Farmers' Club respectively.] 22 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTlCliLTURAL SOCMI-y^^ . MENDEL:S law of HEEEDITY and its AP.PIJ0AT10N TO HOKTICULTUKE. By C. 0. Hurst, F.L.S. [Read Moy 4, 1909.] Mendel's law was founded on simple characters in garden peas. In his experiments Mendel found seven pairs of characters that followed his law, namely: — Rounded and ivrinkled seeds. Yellow and green seeds (cotyledons). Coloured and white seed-coats. Inflated and coyistricted pods. Green and yellow pods. Distributed and bunched flowers. Tall and dwarf stems. It will be observed that Mendelian characters consist of pairs of contrasts. Mendel found that in each case the two contrasting characters behaved in breeding as " dominants " and " recessives," the first-named of each pair being dominant " and the other " recessive." For instance, when a pure-bred tall pea was crossed with a pure-bred dwarf pea, the offspring were all tall, no matter which way the cross was made. In Mendehan terms tallness is " dominant " and dwarfness " recessive. " When the tall crossbreds produced seeds by self-fertilization, Mendel found that the offspring consisted of both tails and dwarfs, and on the average there were three tails to one dwarf. It will be noted that the " recessive " dwarf character, after " skipping a generation," reappeared in a quarter of the offspring. Mendel found that these extracted dwarfs bred permanently true to the dwarf character, notwithstandmg the tallness of their parents and ancestors. The tall individuals of the same generation, however, proved to be of two kinds ; on the average one-third of them were pure tails, breeding true to the tall character, notwithstanding their dwarf ancestors, while two-thirds of them were impure tails throwing dwarfs as well as tails, as their parents did before them. The diagram (fig. 12) will serve to illustrate the results obtained by Mendel in crossing pure tall peas with pure dwarf peas and their behaviour in subsequent generations. Mendel's Law of Segregation. Mendel's law of heredity was based on the experimental facts noted above. In order to give a reasonable explanation of such facts, Mendel conceived the idea of the separation or segregation of characters in the germ-cells. Mendel supposed, as Darwin and his successors have MEXDFX'S LAW OF HEREDITY AND HORTICULTURE. 23 done, that each heritable character is represented in the germ-cells (both egg-cells and pollen-cells) by a certain determiner or factor. In the particular case we have been considering, the heritable characters are apparently tallness and dwarfness. Each individual plant raised from fertilized seed is the product of its two parents, consequently it is a double structure determined by the coming together of the paternal and maternal factors. A pure-bred tall pea, for instance, may be said to be the outcome of the meeting of a paternal factor for tallness with a maternal factor for tallness. Similarly, a pure-bred dwarf pea may be regarded as the ^oMs 7qM ^cM SfaM ZuHL^ ^um^ Fig. 12. -Showing the results obtained by Mendel in crossing Tall AND Dwarf Peas. consequence of the meeting of a paternal factor for dwarfness with a maternal factor for dwarfness. On the other hand, a cross-bred between a pure-bred tall pea and a pure-bred dwarf pea may be regarded as due to the meeting of the paternal factor for tallness with the mxaternal factor for dwarfness, or vice versa. Mendel's conception was that when the cross-bred formed its germ-cells (egg-cells and pollen-cells), the factors for tallness and dwarfness separated, the tall factor going into one germ-cell and the dwarf factor into another. In that case the germ- cells of the cross-bred would be of two kmds, and on the average one-half of them would be carrying the tall factor and 24 JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL HOKTICTTLTURAL SOCIETY. one-linlf of them would ho cnrrying t,]ie (Iwavf rnclor. (^(^nsioqiioTiiily , wboii i\\c cM'oss-ln'od \\;is; s(^] f- foH-ilizod foni' clislincli rc^sulls would happen, on tlie avorago willi p(iual frcnpicMicy : — • (1) A poUen-cidl carrying tlic (all fat'1(M- might lueet an egg-cell containing the tall fai'lor, giving rise io a pure tall plant. (2) A pollen-cell carrying the tall factor might meet an egg-cell containing the d\A'arf factor, giving rise to an impnre tall plant. (3) A pollen-cell carrying the dw^arf factor might meet an ogg-ccll containing the tall factor, giving rise to an impure tall plant. (4) A pollen-cell carrying the dwarf factor might meet an egg-cell containing the dwarf factor, giving rise to a pure dwarf plant. The diagram (fig. 13) on p. 25 will serve to illustrate Mendel's con- ception of germinal segregation. The tall plants are represented by oblongs and the dwarf plants by squares. The germ-cells of each plant are shown as circles. The contained tall factors appear black and the dwarf factors white. If the diagram is compared with the previous one, it will be seen that Mendel's conception of germinal segregation fully explains the results obtained in his experiments. In further confirmation of the above interpretation of his results, Mendel made all the possible matings between the three germinal types. As we have already seen (fig. 12), both the extracted pure types bred true, while the impure type selfed gave all three types again. Mendel also mated the impure tails with the pure tails, and these gave, on the average, equal numbers of impure tails and pure tails. He also mated the impure tails with the pure dwarfs, and these gave, on the average, equal numbers of impure tails and pure dwarfs. The diagram (fig. 14) on p. 26 will illustrate these matings and their results, and at the same time Mendelian segregation- The " Presence and Absence " Method. Eecent experiments with many different characters in various plants and animals fully confirm Mendel's results with peas, and show clearly that Mendel's law of heredity is capable of general application. At the same time these results have suggested a more simple method of pre- sentation of the facts of Mendelian segregation, w^iich not only explains later developments better, but puts a different construction on the im- portant phenomenon of Mendelian dominance. It is curious to observe how this striking phenomenon of dominance has proved a stumbling- block to many in their comprehension of the Mendelian principles, and yet seemingly it w^as this phenomenon that enabled Mendel to discover his simple law of segregation. There seems to be no doubt that Mendel himself regarded tallness and dwarf ness, for instance, as a definite pair of contrasting characters, which behaved in breeding as "dominant" and "recessive," and Mendel seems to have imagined tliat the definite germinal factors of each contrasting character actually segregated from one another in the Mendel's law of heredity and hoeticultuee. 25 reproductive cells. In view of recent experiments, however, we prefer to regard it more simply. In common with Mendel we regard tallness, for instance, as due to a definite germinal factor present in the tall pea, but on the other hand we regard dwarf ness as simply due to the ahsenee of the tall factor from the dwarf pea. Fig, 13. — Illustrating Mendel's conception of the germinal segrega- tion OP the factors for "tallness" and " dwarfness " in Peas. (Also illustrating the "presence and absence" method.) Thus in the presence of the tall factor the pea is tall, while in its absence the pea is dwarf. Tallness appears to be dominant simply because it is present, and in its absence the seemingly recessive character is manifested. We 26 JOl^NAL OF THE RO^ AL llORTI (^r LTTRAL SOC^Tl-yrV. |vi-efer, tlieM'ofcv'e, to roi^nrd " prt'scMicc' " mikI " nliscMicc' " of (alliK^ss :is the two ooMl rasi iii^i;- rliaraotoi's, ratlicr than tallncss and dw iirl'ncss. At first sight tliis may appear to be a (hstiiictnui w ithout a dilTtMcMu-e. Hut in rcahty the dirt'ereiice is important and promises to lead to tar-i'eaeJiing II Bl it.) DO _ X _ DO ' A (A) Fig. 14. — Further illustrating Mendelian Segregation. (Also "presence" and "absence.") consequences, for it means that each heritable factor is a unit that may be distinct in its inheritance from all other factors. It is simply in its presence ' ' and ' ' absence ' ' that each heritable factor follows Mendel's law. The two diagrams above wall also serve to illustrate the "presence and absence" method (figs. 13 and 14). In these the Mendel's law of heredity and horticulture. 27 " presence " of the tall factor is marked by the presence of black in the spaces, while its " absence " is shown by the absence of black in the spaces, leaving them apparently white. It will be observed that in the pure tails there is a double presence of the tall factor made up of a single presence from each parent, while in the impure tails there is only a single presence from one parent. In other words, in the pure tails there is a double presence and m the impure tails a single presence, while in the pure dwarfs there is a complete absence of the tall factor. In the same way we may take it that the presence of the factor for roundness prevents wrinkling and the pea is rounded, while in the absence of the round factor the pea is wrinkled. Similarly the presence of the factor for yellowness changes the green peas into yellow, while in its absence the peas remain green, and so on with other characters. The Phenomenon of " Dominance." The " presence and absence " method puts a different construction on the question of Mendelian " dominance. " From the standpoint of " presence and absence " we cease to regard " dominance " as a particular mode of inheritance. We look upon it simply as due to the " presence " of a higher factor which somehow conceals the manifesta- tion of a lower factor. Thus when we speak of a yellow pea as being dominant " to a green pea we simply mean that the " presence " of the higher " yellow " factor conceals the manifestation of the lower " green " factor and the pea is yellow. Oti the other hand, in the " absence " of the higher " yellow " factor, the lower green factor, present all the time in the yellow pea, is manifested and the pea is green. So far we have hardly any indications as to how the higher factors conceal the " presence " of the lower factors, but it seems likely that this phenomenon is part of the larger question of the interactions between the various unit factors in the production of visible characters. The complete solution of this important problem is for the future, and when it is fully solved, no doubt, we shall know more about heredity and variation. From the results of various experiments with plants and animals we already know that complete " dominance " is far from universal. In many cases the " dominance " is incomplete, the lower " recessive " character being manifested in various degrees in the cross-bred. In such cases it would appear that a single presence of a unit factor produces a different result from a double presence of the same factor. In other cases interaction between two unit-factors produces a new form distinct from both, parents. It seems likely too, that the familiar blended and mosaic forms met with, especially in hybrids between distinct species, are also due to the varied interactions between different unit-factors. All this goes to show that the phenomenon of Mendelian " dominance," though important, is but a secondary con- sideration quite distinct from Mendel's law of segregation. 128 JOOKNAL OF THE ROYAL HOiiTiCULTUUAL SOCIETY. Ill view of the adoption of the *' presence and absence " method, which in the circumstances seems inevitable, the question naturally arises whether it is quite expedient to retain for general use the Men- delian terms " dominant " and " recessive." If these terms are applied in the original sense, as they usually are, to the " dominance " of a higher unit-factor over a lower unit-factor, then from the standpoint of " presence and absence " the application is unsound. While, on the other hand, if the terms are more properly restricted to the " pre- sence " and " absence " of a single unit-factor it is to be feared that considerable confusion must arise. On the whole, therefore, it would seem better to use the terms " liigher " and " lower " (" epistatic " and " hypostatic " of Bateson) in place of " dominant " and " recessive," where two unit-factors are concerned. Application of Mendel's Law to Hokticultube. Eecent experiments have shown that many simple characters in garden plants follow^ Mendel's law. When the unit-factors happen to correspond with the horticultural characters, it is a simple matter for the breeder to breed quickly what he wants; for he knows that, according to Mendel's law, the plant manifesting the lower factor will breed true at once, and that by breeding from several individuals manifesting the higher factor one will be found which breeds true. This enables the breeder to dispense entirely with the old and laborious method of so-called " fixing " by continuous selection, which method, though usually effective in the end, is now clearly recognized as a waste of time. Mendel's law provides a much quicker and more effective method of achieving the same result. Mendel's metnod was simply to breed from single individuals separately. By so doing the breeder can select the particular individual which breeds true in accordance with his requirements and increase his stock solely from that source. In that way the grower secures at once a true and permanent stock, whi(^ii can be maintained simply by isolation. Beeeding Novelties by Ee-combination. The combination of two pairs of simple characters by crossing, and the results which follow the self-fertilization of such crosses, are of great utility to the breeder, for in the process of re-combination following Mendelian segregation new forms arise which will breed true in accord- ance with Mendel's law. Thus, Mendel himself crossed a round yellow with a wrinkled green pea, and obtained in the second generation two new forms — round green and wrinkled yellow peas, some of which bred true at once in accordance with his law. By following Mendel's law Me. W. Cuthbeetson, the well-known grower of sweet peas, states that he obtained in the second generation a true stock of the new and valuable variety, ' Waved King Edward,' by simply crossing the plain red ' King Edward ' with the waved imexdel's law of heeedity and hoeticulture. 29 pink ' Countess Spencer. '" The diagram (fig. 15) will illustrate how this was done. The plain red variety, ' King Edward,' crossed with the waved pink variety, ' Countess Spencer,' produced in the first generation (Fi) a plain red cross-bred, the lower waved and pink characters not being manifested, owing to the presence of the higher plain and red factors.! In the second generation (F2) the plain red cross-bred self-fertilized produced four forms — plain red, plain pink, waved red, and waved pink — in accordance with Mendel's law. Mr. Cuthbertson did not apparently count the numhers of each type, but there should have been on the average nine plain reds, three plain pinks, three waved reds, and one waved pink. That is to say, out of every sixteen plants raised, three plants of the novelty ' Waved Sweet Pea PlA I N Red WaV t D Pink Plain Red ^ 1 Plain RCD Plain V\/a v e d \a/a v e d P f N K^^^^^..^-^ R E D ^--.,....^^^1 N K ll/'a/i/ecC '^K/L/np idjvcurcb Fig. 15.~Showing the origin of the ' Waved King Edward ' Sweet Pea by re-combination following Mendelian Segregation. King Edward ' would be the Mendehan expectation. On the average, one of these would breed true, while two would throw waved pinks again. By selecting the pure individual Mr. Cuthbertson would thus secure a pure strain of the novelty in the second generation. Mr. Cuthbertson states that he raised the novelty ' Primrose Spencer ' in a similar manner. In my own experiments a few years ago I raised a true stock oJ * Black Knight Cupid ' in the second generation by crossing the ordinary * Sweet Pea Annual, 1909. t From a few results that I have seen it seems likely that when the ' Waved ' or ' Spencer ' type of sweet pea (now so popular with sweet -pea fanciers) comes to be critically studied in its Mendelian relationship to the " plain " and " hooded " types some complications will be found. Indeed, it would not be surprising to hnd that there are at least two genetic types of the ' Waved ' sweet pea. 30 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL IIORTICI LTURAL SOOIF/FY. tall ' Black Knight ' with ' Pink Ciipid.' In this cnso, however, three pairs of characters were concerned in the cross, and consequently, on the average, only three plants out of sixty-four were expected to he ' Black Kniglit Cupid/ and only one of these sliould hreed true. The actual nunihers were as follows: — In the first experiment, out of 244 plants there were ten * Black Knight Cupids,' the Mendelian expectation nearest in whole numbers being eleven. In the second experiment, out of 166 plants there were seven * Black Knight Cupids,' the expectation being eight. In the third experiment, out of 165 plants there were only three * Black Knight Cupids ' instead of the expected eight.* Adding the results of the three experiments together, there were out of 575 plants twenty * Black Knight Cupids,' where twenty-seven was the Mendelian expectation.! In the next generation (F,) some of the ' Black Knight Cupids ' bred quite true, while others did not. Curiously enough, one plant gave a mixture of ' Black Knight Cupids ' and Wild Purple Talh, which was probably due to the intervention of bees. The following diagram (fig. 16) will illustrate the above experiment : — Sweet Pea Tall Cupid PuHPLE RtD DarkWing Light Wino Tall Purple l i c h t w i n g Fx I 1 1 — i ' ' T — I 1 » TPL TPD TRL CPL TRD CRD CRL CRD 27 9 9 9 _ 3 3 -*.^.^^__3^ 1 Fig. 16.— Showing the origin of the ' Black Knight Cupid ' Sweet Pea BY re-combination FOLLOWING MeNDELIAN SEGREGATION. T = tall ; C = Cupid ; P = purple ; K = red ; L = light wing ; D = dark wing. T, P, and L are higher factors; while 0, R, and D are the cor- responding lower factors. * In this experiment there were ten ' Cupids ' which somehow failed to flower, owing probably to their being overcrowded. t In these experiments there was throughout a fairly uniform excess of tails, purples, light wings, and long pollens, with a corresponding deficiency of Cupids, reds, dark wings, and round pollens, the cause of which is at present obscure. On the whole the numbers were nearer 4 : 1 than the expected 3:1. There was also a partial coupling of purple colour with long pollen and red colour with round pollen, but all the other characters were inherited independently. Mendel's law of heredity and horticulture. 31 Compound Characters. In many cases, however, the unit-factors do not happen to correspond with the horticuUural characters, and interesting com- pHcafcions then arise. For instance, in my experiments with tomatos, red and yellow fruits behaved as units, red being the higher and yellow the lower ; the presence of the ' ' red ' ' factor gave a red tomato, while in the absence of the " red " factor the tomato was yellow. But when the fiery red variety, ' Fireball,' was crossed with the pale-yellow variety, ' Golden Queen,' four distinct colour varieties appeared in the second generation (F,). There were two kinds of reds and two kinds of yellows. This I found to be due to the fact that the fiery-red colour of ' Fireball ' was really a com- pound of two unit-factors, representing red flesh and yellow skin, while * Golden Queen ' had yellow flesh and white skin. Consequently in the second generation two new varieties arose by re -combination — a carmine or " pink " tomato with red flesh and white skin, and a deep yellow tomato with yellow flesh and yellow skin. In accordance with the Mendelian expectation, a few individuals of these two new varieties bred true, while others did not. The following diagram (fig. 17) will illustrate the results obtained in this experiment : — Tomato F lERY Red Pa le Ye llqw JL FiER.Y Red 9 Fiery Red JCarmime Red 3DeepYellow 1 Pale Yellow ^emoj^ S/C^ mAiU SfOm. ^/eMcm/ S/Hm. S/Cori. Fig. 17. — Showing the compound nature of the red fruit of the ' Fireball ' Tomato and the appearance of two new forms by re-com- bination FOLLOWING Mendelian Segregation. It will be observed that red flesh and yellow skin are both repre- sented by higher factors appearing in Fi, while yellow flesh and white skin are represented by lower factors which are not manifested in F 1 , owing to the presence of the higher factors for red flesh and yellow skin. 3-2 JOURNAL OF THE KOiAL ILOUTiC DLTUilAL iSOClETY. Tiie ]\leiuleli;m oxpocdailoii of iho four forms iu the second genera- tion was, oi' c'e)iiLbo, 'J : 3 : o : 1. The actual nuoibers observed were 31: 11: 10: 3. Smiilarly, Professor Bateson, by crossing a red sweet pea with a cream-coloured one, obtained ivhiies in the second generation, tlie whites arising fiom the re-combination of the colourless plastids of tlie red sweet pea with the colourless sap of the cream sweet pea. The following diagram (fig. 18) will ihustrate the results obtained by Professor Bateson in his experiment: — OWEET TEA Red X Cream Ja r™ 1 ' 1 " 9 Red 3 Red-Cream 3 White iCream lilAJZi 9>&isti:d3 ^Mffux 9ea£tkds 9£ajsm yeijUu/ 9iut^ Fig. 18. — Showing the origin of a White Sweet Pea by crossing a Eed with a Cream. Re-combination following Mendelian Segrega- tion. (After Bateson, Saunders, and Punnett.) An even more interesting result of the same nature has been obtained by Professor Bateson and Mr. E. 0. Punnett by crossmg the Bush and Gupid forms of sweet peas. In the first generation (Fi) all the crossbreds were, curiously enough, tall in habit like the ordinary sweet pea. In the second genera- tion (F2), however, there arose in Mendelian proportions tall, bush, ordinary prostrate Gupid and a new variety called ' Erect Gupid ' with a peculiar habit of growth something like box-edging. This result has been shown to be due to the compound nature of these horti- cultural characters, the crossing of which leads to various re-combina= tions in accordance with Mendel's law. The diagram (fig. 19) on page 33 will illustrate Professor Bateson's experiment and demon- strates the true nature of the tall, bush, and Cupid forms of the sweet pea. Professor Bateson, Mr. E. G. Punnett, and Miss Saunders have also found that the red colour of sweet peas and ten-week stocks is a compound character due to the presence of two unit-factors, in the absence of one of which the flower is white or cream. They also found that purple colour in sweet peas and stocks is due to the presence Mendel's law of heredity and horticulture. 33 of a third unit-factor which only becomes patent in the presence of the other two. From this discovery follow^s the interesting fact that * albino ' sweet peas and stocks (white or cream) may carry certain sap-colour factors which may become patent when, the ' ' albino ' ' is crossed with another " albino " or with a coloured form. Other experi- ments show that various species of plants behave in a similar way. For instance, Professor Batesox and Mr. E. P. Gregory crossed Primula shicnsis ' Crimson King ' with Piiniula sinensis stellaia ' Primrose Queen ' (an " albino " form, white with large yellow eye). In the second generation (F2) this cross gave crimson, magenta, rose, tinged white, and pure white forms : each colour a[)i)eared with small- e\'es iind lai'ge-e\es. All these appeared in " sinensis " and " slellala " furuis, there being at least eigliteen distinct forms, some of which bred true in accordance with Mendel's law. Pi Sweet Peia Bush X Cupid 3oM T)atix/rf Tall 9 Ta LL 3 Bush SCupid IErectCupid "SoM ^ 3qM T)uj-anf dumy>f Fig. 19. — Illustrating the compound nature of tall, bush, and cupid FORMS OF Sweet Peas. (After Bateson, Saunders, and Punnett.) In my own experiments I obtained similar colours by crossing crimson and white forms of the ordinary P. sinensis. In another of my Primula crosses — palm-leaved " stellata " with red stems and pink flowers, crossed with fern-leaved " sinensis " with green stems and white flowers, I obtained in the second generation (F2) 36 distinct forms, of which 34 were new in the sense that they were distinct from the original parents. Of these 34 I found that 14 could be bred true, while the remaining 20 were untixable, being Mendelian hybrids. Practical Value of Unit-Factors. In view of the fact that a decade has hardly passed since the re- discovery of Mendel's long-lost paper, the progress made in Mendelian studies is indeed remarkable. Thanks mainly to the genius of VOL. XXXVI. D 34 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. FlUH'i.ssoij T>A'ri;s()N and (lie iiiilirin^- lalioiirs ol" liis cd-woi luM's ai Oam- brul>^\\ M I'luL'lia 11 analyses of i;ar(lrii planls Iiaw lapidly cxlciidcd oiii' knowlodiit' oi unit -t'aetoi'S. J*j(j[iiipped willi siicli knowledge llu' prac- tical breeder wdl be able io make new eombiualiioiis with a. cerlaiiily undreamed of ten years ai^o, and more important siill, the brccdcM-, by the use of Mendel's law, wdl be able to produce his novelties ready " fixed " without loss of time, and by strict isolation will be able Lo maintain a true stock without the ti'ouble of " rogueing. " It is im- possible to refer in detail to the considerable work that has already been done in discovering unit-factors in garden plants by many experi- menters. The mnnerous experiments with peas, beans, sweet peas, ten-week stocks, snapdragons, prinu'oses, and other plants, by M I'IN.dhjl, Bateson, Punnett, Saunders, Correns, Tschekmak, J on an n sen, Lock, Biffen, Wheldale, Gregory, Siiull, Emerson, Baur, and others are now well known.* These valuable pioneer contributions are however but a beginning, and when we survey the vast extent of the field still unexplored, we realize that a huge harvest of results remains to be reaped by future experimenters. The unit-factors of such valuable garden plants, for instance, as orchids, roses, rhododendrons, chrysan- themums, dahlias, begonias, cinerarias, carnations, pansies, petunias, poppies, clematis, iris, gladiolus, lilies, geraniums, fuchsias, gloxinias, etc., are as yet practically unknown, to say nothing of the more diffi- cult but equally important garden fruits, such as apples, pears, plums, cherries, gooseberries, currants, and strawberries. So far no garden plant can be said to have been thoroughly worked out by Mendelian analysis, but in a few cases great progress has been made, and for the practical guidance of breeders we may refer in some detail to two cases, the snapdragon and the sweet pea, which will serve as an illus- tration of the practical value of unit-factors. We will take the case of the snapdragon first, as the factors so far only refer to the flower colours. Unit-Factors in the Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus). For the elucidation of the complicated colours of the modern snap- dragon we are indebted to the exhaustive experiments of Miss Whel- DALE at Cambridge. No less than sixteen thousand plants have been raised and flowered in the course of these experiments. So far. Miss Wheldale has found at least seven unit-factors which go to make up the flower-colours of the snapdragon. All these factors are evidently present in the original wild form, which has self-coloured flowers of a " magenta " hue. Five of these factors may be represented as follow si : — Y representing yellow colour in the lips. I representing ivory colour in the lips. * For references and details see Professor Bateson's Mendel's Princi'ples of Heredity. Camb. Univ. Press, 1909. t The remaining two factors are S representing a striped or streaked condition of the intensified magenta, and another factor representing a carmine pink pigment, which is present in the newer varieties of snapdragon known in gardens as 'Rose Dore.' The precise properties of these two factors are not yet fully known, so that for the present they may be omitted. Miss Wheldale states that the S factor behaves as a recessive to the D factor. It would appear there- Mendel's law of heredity and horticulture. 35 L representing magenta tingeing in the lips. T representing magenta tingeing in the tube. D representing intensification of the magenta colour in the hps and tube. The presence and absence of these five factors in various combina- tions and in their varied relations and interactions have given rise to the numerous colour-forms of the modern snapdragon, now so familiar in gardens. The following table will illustrate this so far as the five factors are concerned: — • Factorl\l Table for Flower Colours in the Snapdragon (A ntirrliin um m ajus). YILTD Self-coloured magenta lips and tube (e.g. wild form, Carmine King). YILT Ivory lips and tube tinged with magenta. YILD Magenta lips and ivory tube (e.g. Delila). YITD Ivory lips and tube. YLTD Crimson lips and magenta tube (e.g. Crimson King). ILTD Pure white. Ivory lips tinged with magenta, and ivory tube. Ivory lips and tube. Yellow lips and ivory tube tinged with magenta. Crimson lips and ivory tube. Yellow lips and ivory tube (e.g. Yellow Prince). Pure white. Ivory lips and tube. Yellow hps tinged with crimson, and ivory tube. Yellow lips and ivory tube (e.g. Yellow Prince). Pure white. ) ) ) > > ) ? ? ) ) 5 5 5 5 5 5 Yellow lips and ivory tube (e.g. Yellow Prince). Pure white. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 All absent Pure white. fore that the striping is due to the absence of a factor for uniform colour (say U) and that in the wild form this factor U is present together with D. D 2 YIL YIT YID YLT YLD YID ILT ILD ITD LTD YI YL YT YD IL IT ID LT LD TD Y I L T D JOimNAL OF TTTI'^- ROYATi nORTTOTTTiTlinATj 8()('I^V^^ . It will be observed that ibo various ivlnlioiis and iniernciions between the five factors in the case of i\\c snn ptlragon are pmi icniarly interesting and suggestive. The faclors 1, L, T, and 1) cmi only be manifested in Ihc pi-cstMu-i- of Y. in tJie absence of Y tho (lowers are pure white, while ni ihe picsence of Y all are colom'ed. I with Y gives ''ivory.'" L with Y gives "crimson," but with I in addition it gives "magenta." T and D can only be manifested in the presence of L. In order to show the simple effects of the presence and absence of the five factors and their somewhat complicated relations and interactions only a single presence of each factor is shown in the table. In accord- ance with INFFvnFr.'s Inw, however, it will be quite understood that a pure-bred foiiu \\t)Ml(l linve a doable presence of each factor; thus the pure-breeding wild form would be constituted YYIILLTTDD and so on with the others. Miss Wheldale found that the single presence of these five factors gave the same visible result as the double presence, except that the single presence of L gave a lighter shade of ' * magenta than the double presence. The breeding results from the single presence and the double pre- sence would, of course, be quite different. All the above combinations of factors maj^ occur wdth either a double presence or a single presence of each factor in various combinations, in accordance with Mendel's law. In the course of her experiments Miss Wheldale has incidentally cleared up certain difficulties in regard to the form known in gardens as ' White Queen. ' This form has apparently pure white lips and tube, with a yellow palate. Nevertheless, Miss Wheldale 's experiments demonstrate conclusively that in breeding it behaves precisely as if it were an ivory, the yellow form extracted from it in the second genera- tion being rather paler in shade than the ordinary yellow.'^ Unit-Factoes in the Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus). The sweet pea has been specially investigated by Peofessor Bateson, Miss Saundees, and Me. Punnett. So far at least twelve unit factors have been found which determine the habit of growth, flower form, and colour. All these factors are evidently present in the typical wild sweet pea, which has a tall and prostrate habit, with dark leaf axils; the flowers have an erect purple standard, with blue wings, the anthers are fertile, and the pollen grains are long. Eight of these factors may be represented as follows : — T representing tallness of growth. P representing prostrate habit of growth. W representing whiteness in the flower. C representing first sap-colour factor. ) ^ , , . n T» .• 1 1 p J h Red colour m the flower. R representmg second sap-colour factor. J * Cf. Feport of Int. Covf. of Genetics, 1906, p. 117. Fig. 29. — Cattleya x Mackaxi Undine. [Journal of Horticulture.) (p. 44) A pure E albino. Mendel's law of heredity and horticulture. 37 B representing blue sap-colour in the flower. D representing intensiticatiou of sap-colour in the flower. L representing redaction of sap-colour in the wings of the flower. The presence and absence of these eight factors in various com- binations and in their varied relations and interactions have given rise to numerous types and colour forms, most of which are familiar in gardens. The following table will illustrate this so far as the eight factors are concerned.'^ Other garden forms not found in the table are no doubt due to the presence of other unit factors not yet isolated. Factoeial Table for Habit and Flower Colour in the Sweet Pea {Latliyrus odoratus). TPWCRBDL Tall, purple standard with blue wings (e.g. wild form, Piiryle hivincible). Tall, purple standard with purple wings (e.g. Black Knight). Tall, white tinged wuth purple (e.g. Lottie Echford). Tall, red standard with blush wings (e.g. Pcmited Lady). Tall, pure white (e.g. Dorothy Eckford). Tall, purple cream standard with blue cream wings. Bush, purple standard with blue wings. Oupid, purple standard with blue wings (e.g. Captain of the Blues Cupid). Tall, white tinged with purple (e.g. Lottie Eckford). Tall, red standard with red wings (e.g. King Edward). Tall, white tinged with red (e.g. Lovely). Tall, pure white (e.g. Dorothy Eckford). TPWCRBD TPWCRBL TPWCRDL TPWCBDL TPWRBDL TPCRBDL TWCRBDL PWCRBDL TPWCRB TPWCRD TPWCRL TPWCBD TPWCBL TPWCDL TPWRBD TPWRBL TPWRDL TPWBDL * The remaining factors represent (1) dark leaf axil, (2) erect standard, (3) long pollen, (4) fertile anthers. The precise relationships between these remaining factors have not yet been fully worked out, but results so far have presented some interesting complications. For instance, a partial gametic coupling has been found (in coloured flowers) between the factors for dark axil and fertile anthers (pure white flowers have usually light axils). A partial gametic coupling also exists between the factors for long pollen and blue colour. Further a gametic repulsion between the factors for erect standard and blue colour has been discovered. There is also apparently a somatic coupling between erect standard and light wings and hooded standard and dark wings. In view of these complications these four factors may be for the present omitted. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. TPCRBD TPCRBL TPCRDL TPCBDL TPRBDL TWCRBD TWCRBL TWCRDL TWCBDL TWRBDL TCRBDL PWCRBD PWCRBL PWCRDL PWCBDL PWRBDL PCRBDL WCRBDL Tal], purple cii-nm sinndanl and wings. Tall, cream liiigcd w itli [)iirple. Tall, red cream sfcandai'd willi bliiwli ficam wings (e.g. Jeannie Gordon). Tall, cream (e.g. Hon. Airs. Ken you). Bush, purple standard and wings. Bush, white tinged with purple. Bush, red standard with blush wings. Bush, pure white. Bush, purple cream standard with blue cream wings. Cupid, purple standard and wings (e.g. Black Knight Cupid). Cupid, white tinged with purj)le. Cupid, red standard with blush wings (e.g. Pink Cupid). Cupid, pure white (e.g. White Cupid). Cupid, pure cream standard with blue cream wings. Erect Cupid, purple standard with blue wings. TPWCR TPWCB TPWCD TPWCL TPWRB TPWRD TPWRL TPWBD TPWBL TPWDL TPCRB TPCRD TPCRL TPCBD TPCBL TPCDL TPRBD TPRBL TPRDL TPBDL TWCRB TWCRD TWCRL Tall, white tinged with red (e.g. Lovely). Tall, pure white (e.g. Dorothy Eckford). Tall, cream tinged with ^^urple. Tail, red cream standard and wings (e.g. Queen Alexandra). Tall, cream tinged with red (e.g. Evelyn Hemusj Tall, cream (e.g. Hon. Mrs. Kenyon). Bush, white tinged with purple. Bush, red standard and wungs. Bush, white tinged with red. Mendel's law of heredity and horticulture. 39 TWCBD TWCBL TWCDL TWRBD TWRBL TWRDL TWBDL TCRBD TCRBL TCRDL TCBDL TRBDL PWCRB PWCRD PWCRL PWCBD PWCBL PWCDL PWRBD PWRBL PWRDL PWBDL PCRBD PCRBL PCRDL PCBDL PRBDL WCRBD WCRBL WCRDL WCBDL WRBDL CRBDL TPWC TPWR TPWB TPWD TPWL TPCR TPCB TPCD TPCL TPRB TPRD TPRL Bush, pure white. Bush, purple cream standard and wings. l^ush, cream tinged with purple. Bush, red cream standard with hlush cream wings. Bush, cream. Cupid, white tinged with purple. Cupid, red standard and wings. Cupid, white tinged with red (e.g. Prima Donna Cupid). Cupid, pure white (e.g. White Cupid). Cupid, purple cream standard and wings. Cupid, cream tinged with purple. Cupid, red cream standard with blush cream wings. Cupid, cream (e.g. Primrose Cupid). > > » > > > Erect Cupid, purple standard and wings. Erect Cupid, white tinged with purple. Erect Cupid, red standard with blush wings. Erect Cupid, pure white. Erect Cupid, purple cream standard with blue cream wings. Tall, pure white (e.g. Dorothy Echford). Tall, cream, tinged with red (e.g. Evelyn Hemus). Tall, cream (e.g. Hon. Mrs. Kenyon). 40 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL IlOKTTCliriTrTRAL SOOTF/rY. TPBD Tall, crenm (e.g. Hon. Mrs. Kcnyon). TPBL TPDL TWCR Busb, white iinged with red. TWCB Bns1i. pure wliite. TWCD TWCL TWRB TWRD TWRL TWBD TWBL TWDL TCRB Bush, cream tinged with pnrple. TCRD Bush, red cream standard and wings. TCRL Bush, cream tinged w^ith red. TCBD Bush, cream. TCBL TCDL TRBD TRBL TRDL TBDL PWCR Cupid, white tinged with red (e.g. Prima Donna Cupid). PWCB Cupid, pure white (e.g. While Cupid). PWCD PWCL PWRB PWRD PWRL PWBD PWBL PWDL PCRB Cupid, cream tinged with purple. PCRD • Cupid, red cream standard and wings. PCRL Cupid, cream tinged with red (e.g. Alice Eckjnrd Cupid). PCBD Cupid, cream (e.g. Primrose C^ipid). PCBL PCDL „ „ PRBD PRBL PRDL PBDL WCRB Erect Cupid, white tinged with purple. WORD Erect Cupid, red standard and wings. WCRL Erect Cupid, white tinged with red. WCBD WCBL WCDL WRBD WRBL WRDL WBDL CRBD CRBL CRDL CBDL RBDL TPW TPC TPR TPB TPD TPL TWC TWR TWB TWD TWL TCR TCB TCD TCL TRB TRD TRL TBD TBL TDL PWC PWR PWB PWD PWL PGR PCB PCD PCL PRB PRD PRL PBD MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY AND HORTICULTURE. 41 Erect Cupid, pure white. Erect Cupid, purple creo.m standard and wings. Erect Cupid, cream tinged with purple. Erect Cupid, red cream standnrd with hlush cream wings. Erect Cupid, cream. Tall, pure white (e.g. Dorothy Eckford). Tall, cream (e.g. Hon. Mrs. Kenyon). Bush, pure white. Bush, cream tinged with red. Bush, cream. Cupid, pure white (e.g. White Cwpid). Cupid, cream tinged with red (e.g. Alice Eel-ford Cupid). Cupid, cream (e.g. Prir)irose Cupid). JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL TTORTICHTjTIIRAL ROCTETY. PBL Cupid, cre-nni (e.g. PriDirosr Ciijr'Kj). PDL „ ^ ^ WCR Erect Cupid, wliiie tinged witli red. WCB Erect Cnpid. pure wliite. WCD WCL WRB WRD WRL WBD WBL WDL CRB Erect Cupid, crenm tinged wiih purple. CRD Erect Cupid, red cream standard and win CRL Erect Cupid, cream tinged witli red. CBD Erect Cupid, cream. CBL ,, ,, CDL RBD RBL ), RDL BDL TP Tall, cream (e.g. Hon. Mrs. KeMijon). TW Bush, pure white. TC Bush, cream. TR } J > > TB TD TL PW Cupid, pure white (e.g. White Cupid). PC Cupid, cream (e.g. Primrose Cupid). PR >) )> M PB J J 5 > J J PD Plj 5 J J 5 » > WC Erect Cupid, pure white. WR WB WD WL CR Erect Cupid, cream tinged with red. CB Erect Cupid, cream. CD CL RB RD Rli ) ) 5 > BD Mendel's law of heeedity and horticulture. 43 BL DL Erect Cupid, cream. T P W C R B D L Bush, cream. Oupid, cream (e.g. Prlnirose Cupid). Erect Oupid, pure white. Erect Oupid, cream. All absent Erect Oupid, cream. It will be observed that the various relations and interactions between the factors in the case of the sweet pea are quite different from those in the snapdragon. Tlius T with P gives the ordinary " Tall " habit, T alone gives " Busli " -habit, P alone gives the ordinary " Oupid " habit, while absence of both T and P gives the form Erect Oupid." Presence of W gives a pure white ground in the flowers, while absence of W gives a cream ground. 0 with R gives red colour in the flower, while in the absence of either 0 or R the flowers are pure white or cream, according to the presence or absence respectively of W. B is only manifested in the presence of both 0 and E giving purple colour. D is only manifested in the presence of both 0 and E giving intensified colour. L is only manifested in the presence of 0, E, and D together, giving light-coloured wings. As in the case of the snapdragon, only a single presence of the eight factors is given in the above table for the sake of simplicity. In accordance with Mendel's law it will, of course, be understood that a pure-bred form would have a double presence of each factor, thus the pure-breeding wild form would be constituted TTPPWWOOEEBB DDLL and so on with the others. So far, however, the single presence of these eight factors apparently gives the same visible result as the double presence, but the breeding results would, of course, be quite different. All the above combinations of factors may occur with either a double or a single presence of each factor in various combina- tions in accordance with Mendel's law. The results of these experiments with the snapdragon and the sweet pea show that the numerous and varied garden forms that have arisen from time to time under cultivation are simply due to the dropping out of certain unit factors. It would appear, there- fore, that the evolution of the snapdragon and the sweet pea under cultivation, so far from being an increase of complexity, as one might 44 JOURNAL OF THE KOIAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. iiatui'all> assiiiue. is in reality iiRvrely a siuipliticaliuii of (lie oia^iiial wild form. The |)liili>s<.>|tliiL'al siyiiiricatiiT of this facd cannoL he deahi with here, hut it is evident ttiat tlio coiise(|ueiK'es of its applieat ion will be far-reaeliiiig indeed. The factorial tallies of the snapdragon and the swoel })ea given above will, it is hoped, assist breeders to arrange their nmtiiigs so us to secure the results desired. " Albino Orchids. Eecent results show that when true albino orchids {i.e. with no trace of purple sap colour) are crossed, the offspring may be all albinos, all coloured reversions, or both albino and coloin-ed forms may be raised from the same capsule."' For instance, Paphiopedilmn calloswni Sanderae, selfed by Mr. N. Cookson, produced true albinos. Another batch, raised by Mr. T. Statter, also produced true albinos (fig. 22). P. Lawrenceanum Hyeanum, selfed by Mr. N. Cookson, produced nine plants, eight of which reproduced the true albino, while one plant is said to have reveii^ed to an ordinary coloured form of P. Law- renceanum. This apparent exception is remarkable, and a repetition of this experiment with larger numbers w^ould be useful (fig. 23). P. Lawrenceanum Hyeanum x P. callosum Sanderae, raised by Messrs. Charles worth in 1900, produced the albino hybrid P. x Maudiae, all the plants of which have so far proved to be true albinos. Another batch raised by Baron Schroder in 1907 also produced true albinos (fig. 24). P. x Maudiae x P. insigne Sanderianmn (fig. 25), raised by Lieut. -Col. Holford in 1908, produced the albino hybrid P. X Rosettii, sixteen plants of which have so far flowered, all appa- rently true albinos. It may be noted here that while P. insigfie Sanderianum so far appears to behave as a true albino, yet the presence of some dark-coloured hairs at the base of the petals suggests that this variety may possibly be a tinged albino like P. insigne Sanderae. It would be interesting to know if the hybrid P. X Rosettii also has those dark-coloured hairs (fig. 26). P. callosum Sanderae x P. bellatulwm album (fig. 27), raised by Mr. Cookson in 1907, produced the coloured hybrid P. x Wottonii, twenty-five plants of which have flowered, all apparently sap-coloured like the typical hybrid between P. callosum and P. hellatulum. P. Lawrenceanum PLyeanum x P. bellatulum album, raised by Mr. Cookson, produced the coloured hybrid P. x Lawrebel, resembling the typical hybrid between P. Lawrenceanum and P. bellatulum. Cattleya Mossiae Wageneri (fig. 20), selfed by Messrs. Charlesworth in 1907, produced a true albino with no trace of sap colour. C. Mossiae Wageneri x C. Gashelliana alba (fig. 21), raised by M. Jules Hye, produced three true albinos — viz. C. x Hyeae, C.xHyeae Suzanne (fig. 28), and C.x Hyeae Jiingfrau. G. Mossiae Wageneri x C. intermedia alba (fig. 30), raised by Colonel Holford in 1906, produced the albino hybrid C. x Mackayi Undine (fig. 29), * For details see Gardener^'' Chronicle, 1909, i. p. 81. Fig. 23. — Paphiopediluji Lawrenxeanum Hyeanum. [Gard. Chron.) (p. 44) A pure R albino. One of the original seedlings raised by Mr. Cookson. Mendel's law of heeedtty and horttculture. 45 fourteen plants of wliicli flowered true albinos. In 1908 three true albinos of the same parentage were raised by Mr. E. G. Thwaites, also one by Sir Trevor Lawrence and one by Messrs. Veitch. C. Schroederae aJha (fig. 34) x C. iutcDuedia alha, raised by Mr. Cook SON, produced in 1907 the coloured liybrid C. x Thayeriana , similar to the hybrid raised by Mr. Orpet between the typical G. inter- media and C. Schroederae alha. C . Gashellicnia alha x C. Harrisoniana alha (fig. 31), exhibited by Mr. Thwaites in 1908, produced the coloured hybrid C. x Williamsiae, four plants of which had coloured Fig. 24. — Paphiopedilum x Maudiae. {Orchid Review.) (p. 44) A pure R albino. flowers like the typical hybrid between C. Gaskelliana and C. Har- risoniana. G. Gashelliana alha x G. Warneri alha (fig. 32), raised by M. Peeters in 1904, produced the hybrid G. x Peetersiae Myra (fig. 33), five of which were true albinos with pure white flowers and green leaves, and two were coloured, having lilac-purple flowers with purple margins to the leaves. These results are similar to those obtained in the Mendelian experi- ments of Professor Bateson, Mr. E. C. Punnett, and Miss Saunders with sweet peas and stocks. It is evident, therefore, that in orchids, as in sw^eet peas and stocks, the appearance of sap-colour depends on the simultaneous presence of two complementary colour factors, which may be termed C and K. 40 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL nORTTCULTlTRAL SOClF/rV. If both the colour f;uM(^r;^ C nnd E ;iro pi'c^scMit s;i}) is coloured; if either G or E is ;i]>stMii, ihc snp is colourless ;uul the plant is an albino. Consequently dii'l'erent albinos may carry differenti coheir factors; some may be G albinos, carrying the G factor, while others may be E albinos, carrying the E factor. For instance, in the Gypripedium group results show that Paphiopcilihiin chHosidji Saiulcrar, P. Lawrenceannm Tlycanum , P. X Mandiiic, ami ])rc)]):iMy iiisiijiie Sanderkimivi and P. x BoseHii, Fig. 25. — Paphiopedilum insigne Sanderianum. {Orchid Revieiv.) (p. 44) Probably a pure R albino. may be regarded as E albinos, while, on the other hand, P. bellatulum album may be regarded as a G albino.''' Similarly in the Gattleya group, for instance, Cattleya Mossiae Wageneri, C. Gaskelliana alha, C. x Hyeae Suzanne, C. intermedia alba, C. X Hyeae Jungfrau, C. x Mackayi Dusseldorfii, G. x Mackayi Undine, and C. x Peetersiae Myra may be regarded as E albinos, C. X Peetersiae Myra being an impure E, having only a single presence of E, the others being pure EE with a double presence of E. On the * It will of course be understood that C and R are purely arbitrary symbols which conveniently serve to distinguish the two colour-factors from each other. Mendel's law of heeedity and horticultuee. 47 other hand, C. HarrisuJiiana alba, C. Scliroederae alba, C. ^Yarneri alba, and probably G. Mendelii alba may be regarded as G albinos, C. Warneri alba being an impure C with only a single presence of 0, the others being pure CC with a double presence of 0. To the orchid breeder who wishes to raise new and improved forms of valuable albinos by crossing, such knowledge is most useful. He will know, for instance, that all the E albinos will breed true albinos amongst themselves, whether selfed or crossed, and also that all the 0 albinos will breed true, selfed or crossed. On the other hand, he Fig. 26. — Paphiopedilum x Rosettii. {Orchid lievkw.) (p. 44) Probably a pure R albino. will know that if he crosses an E albino with a C albino he will get coloured reversions which, of course, he does not want. The orchid breeder will take care, therefore, to keep the C albinos distinct from the E albinos. This raises a question of great importance to the practical breeder. Mendel's law shows that individual albinos of the same species, to all outward appearance identical, may differ from one another in their germinal constitution and consequently give different results when bred from. It is, therefore, of' prime importance for orchid breeders to adopt some simple method of identification for individual albinos, whether imported or raised from seed in gardens. A distinct name would hardly be convenient for individuals which 48 JOUTvNAL OF THE KOYAL llOUTiC ULTU UAL ISUCJETY. to the o\o appoiir exactly alike, but idenlilicalioii inlglit he assured by pultiiig till' iiaiiie ol' llic iiii|)OL'ier or raiser iii bruckeis ui'ler iJie iiaiiKj of the albino, togellier w illi a iiiiniber sliowing tlie order of its aj)|)eai'- aiice. For instance, the albino Paphiopedilum callomni Sandcrac was first flowered from an importation of Messrs. Sander in 1894, and tbis plant (and its many offshoots) might be called (Sander 1). Another individual of this albino appeared in an importation of Messrs. Low in 1904, and might be called (Low 1), and so on. The hand-raised seedlings of these albinos might be similarly dis- tinguished, thus (Cookson 1), (Staffer 1), and so on. In this way all the individuals of any particular albino could be distinguished for stud purposes. The same principle might be adopted Fig. 27. — Paphiopedilum bellatulum album. [Orchid Review.) (p. 44) A pure C albino. for special individual coloured forms, and indeed for garden plants generally, to the great advantage of breeders and growers. Standard stud individuals of known germinal constitution would then have a definite value, and their propagation and distribution would be more profitable to all concerned. Once the genetic properties of the in- dividual plant are ascertained, all future breeding results from that plant (and its distributed offshoots) could be foreseen by the aid of Mendel's law. Mendet.ism and the Seed Grower. To none will the consequences of Mendelism appeal more strongly than to the professionaf seed grower. The prosperity — nay, the very existence — of his business depends on growing true stocks of seed. Fig. 28.— Cattleya x Hyeae Suzanne, (p. 44) A pure R albino. Pure white with yellow throat. Fig. 29. .— Cattlei-a X Mackayi Undine. (Journal of Horticulture.) (p. 44) A pure R albino. Mendel's law of heredity and horticulture. 49 Fig. 30. — Cattleya intermedia alba. (p. 44) A pure R albino. VOL. XXXVL 50 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCllli lliis insect identified in iliis couuli \ , hut il is in ;dl |)it)l);il)ilily Jviiowii Lo the American entomologists. In its nest-bulldmg habits it resembles the terrestrial species of Foniiica aiid oilier allied genera found in the British Isles and in other parts of the world. The nests of tlie species in question were, however, generally constructed so that they were partly protected from the direct rays of the tropical sun, being sometimes completely overshadowed by the cacao tress. In the Ohapelton district their nests were found scattered all over the planta- tions, and the ants were found foraging about the branches of a very large percentage of the cacao trees. The nests were often placed close to the trees on wliich the ants were found wandering about ; but in several instances these structures were also found on the outskirts of the plantation without apparently any regard to the distance the ants had to travel in order to reach their feeding-grounds. Many of the trees were found swarming with these insects, but it was some time before one could obtain any clue to the object of their search. Eventually it was discovered that they were attracted by the " honey dew " secreted by small colonies of plant lice (Aphidae) which were feeding upon the leaves of the cacao, generally speaking, at some considerable distance from the main stern and branches. In order, apparently, to screen their movements, the ants constructed for themselves a narrow gallery or covered way leading from the ground up to a point where the branches diverge from the main stem or trunk or sometimes even to a greater elevation. The gallery was in all cases formed of pellets of earth, of a very fragile nature and easily removed. Having reached the main branches of the cacao under cover the insects sought further protection by forming larger covered ways among the dead flowers which had accumulated in the bifurcations of the branches and also among the clusters or " cushions " of flowers upon the main branches. In the latter case the pedicels of the flowers had apparently been injured in such a way as to prevent them falling from the tree, so that they remained in situ, shrivelled and dry, for indefinite periods, forming excellent retreats for the ants. From these shelters they seemed to be constantly moving to and fro among the upper branches of the cacao, seeking for the sweet juice secreted by the aphides. The dead flower-clusters were easily removed and, although carefully examined, did not appear to be cemented together by soil or other substances. At first one suspected that the flowers had died from some unknown disease, but after careful in- vestigation one came to the same conclusion as the planter, that they were destroyed by the ants. This was confirm-ed by the fact that the dead " cushions " always occurred upon the lower portions of the main branches, and that they were invairiably tenanted by these insects. The loss occasioned in this way was often considerable, and several methods of checking their ravages had been attempted with, unfortu- nately, but little success. A mixture of lime, kerosene, turpentine, &c., had been tried as a SOME INSECT PESTS IN THE WEST INDIES. 55 preYentive, but had proved a failure. Gas lime applied to the earth near the tree was effectual for a time, but on losing its offensive odour became useless. The system of grease-banding, in use in this country and elsewhere, was recommended for the pest, and as both tar and grease were available it was suggested that this might be used as a substitute for the proprietary article manufactured for such purposes. The result has not yet been communicated to me, and I am still in doubt as to whether such a compound will retain its viscosity for a sufficiently long period in the tropics, and thus act as a barrier to the inroads of the ants. This preparation should be applied to a strip of grease-proof paper to prevent direct contact with the bark of the tree. Larv.^ of a Wood-Boring Beetle Injuring the Cacao Tree. The larva of a longicorn beetle was found tunnelling the bark and wood of cacao trees in the Chapelton district. Its occurrence was extremely local, and so far as one could gather was, fortunately, not of a serious nature. All the examples discovered had confined their attacks to the lower portions of the stems or main branches and always tenanted a spot which showed evident signs of either previous injury or decay. The subject requires further investigation, though it is doubtful whether the insect can, for the present at least, be looked upon as a serious pest. As a means of prevention, tar should be applied to the ends of all freshly cut branches or other wounds produced by pruning or by other means, as a precautionary measure against the attacks of this insect. Girdler-Weevil of THE Orange and Cacao {Prej)odes vittatus). A pest of a much more serious nature than the larva of the longi- corn beetle already referred to, is a brilliantly coloured weevil (fig. 35) belonging to the Ehynchophorus section of the Coleoptera. The larva of this handsome insect is a very serious pest to both the orange and cacao, and its methods of attack are very striking and distinctly characteristic. The grubs occur, invariably, just below the surface of the ground, and at a point usually immediately above the junction of the roots with the main stem of the tree; and they eat away every portion of the bark, right through the cambium layer, often completely girdling the stem. Every trace of the bark may be removed for a distance of two inches so that a complete broad ring or girdle is formed (fig. 36) resulting in the ultimate death of the tree. Cacao trees thus attacked sometimes throw out adventitious roots just above the girdle, and in such cases the tree may survive for a time, but it rarely, I believe, recovers. The complete life-eycle of this pest has not yet been fully traced out, but Mr. E. J. WoRTLEY has been successful in rearing the beetles from larvae taken from the roots of orange trees. The grub or larva 56 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL llORTKMiLTUnAL S0(^1RT^■. (fig. 35) is foolloss. nnd \\lii(ish iti colour, ineasuiing approximately one inch in lenglli wIumi [Uliy umdirod. 'i'lie adults are very liaudsonio insects and are closely related to the so-called " diamond beetles." At the present moment one can say very little regarding tlie geographical distribution of this pest outside the Island of Jamaica. There is, so far as one can find, no record of its occurrence as a pest in the Lesser i\ntilles, Ihough se^'pt•;1l nllied snout-becM.les occur in Barbados — the \^'eevil-borrrs of llu> siii^iif cmiii' [Splii'iioplioriis scriccns and Diaprepes al>hrrr'ni I us) and the grain or granary weevil {Calmidra onjzae). In Dominica and Montserrat is the destructive palm-weevil {Rliyncophorus palmarum); and in Trinidad the banana is attacked by Sphenopliorus sordidus. As to the distribution of the girdler-beetle in Jamaica one has very httle information to rely upon, but it evidently occurs in widely separated portions of the island, so that in all probability it is generally distributed. But it is satisfactory to note that it was not observed Fig. 35. — Girdler Weevil (and Larva) of Orange and Cacao (Prepodes viTTATUs). (Natural size.) in many of the large cacao plantations and in two extensive orange groves which I inspected during the months of December and January (1908-9). The most effective measure for the prevention of the attacks of the insect is removal of the surface soil from the base of the tree trunks, replacing it with loose rock chippings, or small stones. Un- fortunately, the injury is often done before the planter is aware of the presence of the pest. Plantations of cacao or orange groves found harbouring the grubs should, therefore, be carefully examined, and if the infestation is found to be extensive it may be necessary to treat all of the healthy trees in the way that has been indicated. Bisulphide of carbon, if obtainable in large quantities and at a cheap rate, would doubtless prove effective in destroying the grubs. A layer of gas lime spread round the stem of the trees might well act as a preventive against the beetles laying their eggs at the foot of the plants. But even if it were proved experimentally to be Fig. 36. — Stem of young Cacao tree girdled by the Larv.e of Prepodes viTTATUs. An adventitious root has developed above the girdle. (Natural size.) {To face imge 56.) Fig. 37. — Leaves of Para Eubber (Hevea brasiliensis) riddled by slugs- ( Slightly reduced.) Fig. 39. — Snow-scale (Diaspis amygdali) on the stems of young Castilloa Trees. SOME INSECT PESTS IN THE WEST INDIES. 57 an efficient measure of prevention, it would be quite impossible to adopt this method in places which are situated at great distances from the railway. Slugs Desteoting Para Eubber Plants, Hevea hrasiliensis , &c. In certain portions of the Island of Jamaica both the Para Eubber {Hevea hnisiUfusis) and the Central American Eubber {Castilloa elastica) are being planted in considerable quantities. At Chapelton about 10,000 young plants of the former, mostly from one to three and a half years, though not a few of greater age, have been established, chiefly in the cacao plantations. On the same estate about 1000 Castilloa are also under cultivation, and, as in the former case, are intended ultimately to serve as shade-trees for the cacao, as well as for the production of rubber. Quite a large percentage of the young Para trees had their foliage badly injured (fig. 37) by a large flat slug which occurs in great numbers, especially in the Chapelton district. Previous to my visit all efforts to discover the cause of the injury to the trees in question had failed, and this was scarcely to be won- dered at, seeing that the slug, like most of its congeners, proved to be a night feeder, and that it concealed itself during the day sometimes at a considerable distance from the scene of its nocturnal feasts. Having failed to trace the depredator during the day, arrangements were made to inspect the plants late at night, when one had no difficulty in dis- covering many of the huge slugs feeding upon the leaves. In one instance three examples occurred together on. a young tree whose crown of leaves was scarcely two feet from the ground. Subsequently a careful search was made for the diurnal retreats of these animals, and with the aid of a native negro they were found concealed beneath the moist " trash " covering the stems of the bananas. They were not found elsewhere, though they must of necessity find other suitable places of concealment where similar conditions as to moisture prevail. Though the slugs showed a marked partiality for the Para rubber leaves, it was quite evident that other trees v/ere also attacked. The leaves of the older cacao trees had not escaped their ravages, and the Bissey nut or Kola (Cola acuminata) also showed evident signs of their attacks, sometimes at a considerable distance from the ground. The plants which suffered most were the young Hevea hrasiliensis, especially those which had been planted a few months previously. The writer had no opportunity of testing any measures for the control of this pest; but the following remedies were suggested: — ■ 1. Spraying with Paris Green (poison) and water, the strength to be determined by experiments. 2. Dusting with Paris Green and lime in the proportion used for cotton; normal strength, one part Paris Green to six of lime. 3. Tying barriers or bands of cotton wool round the stems of tlie young trees. 58 .lOUKNAL OF TPIE ROYAL I KVHTlCULTllHArj SOCIpyrV. Pei-sonally I should fnvonr the npplicn(;ion of cotton-wool barriers, wliicli, it' properly applii^l, would (ylToctually prevent the slugs from reaching ilio l(\ify crcnviis of ilie plant. Tlie band should be applied and secui'ed with siring at a height of one foot or more from the ground, and should be at least two inches thick below the tie. The plants in question must be kept free from weeds, so as to prevent the access of the slugs by any other path than the stems of the rubber plants. Cabbage Butteefly (Pirris sp.). One of the commonest butterflies met with during my stay in tlie island was a large white species which is very closely allied to the " cabbage butterfly " (Pierls hrassicae) of this country. It seemed very generally distributed over the whole island, but was nowhere so abun- dant as in the swamps near Port Henderson, where it was seen flitting about over certain favourite plants {Portulaca sp., &c.), frequently congregating together in scores or hundreds, presenting to the stranger a very remarkable sight. Its natural food-plant was not observed, but larvse were found infesting cultivated crops, chiefly cabbage, to which it seemed partial, and to which also it was very destructive in the parish of St. Andrew. Examples of this butterfly were bred in the laboratory from caterpillars which were taken from cabbage under cultivation in the garden of Constant Spring Plotel. This was during the month of December. In January there was a marked diminution of both caterpillars and the butterfly. The larva feeds up very quickly, though the exact period was not ascertained, and the pupal stage lasts but a week or ten days, possibly less under more favourable conditions than those under which they were kept in the laboratory. The infested plants had been dusted over at regular intervals with an insecticide prepared by an American firm. That it was effectual there can be no doubt ; but on discovering that it consisted almost entirely of powdered hellebore the writer advised the cultivator to dis- continue its use, fearing that it might lead to serious results, as large quantities of the vegetable were being served at the table almost daily, often, as the writer observed, with evident traces of the insecticide still in the axils of the leaves. A Pyralid Moth Injuring Beetroot. Beetroots seemed particularly subject to the attacks of the cater- pillar of a moth belonging, so far as one could gather, to one of the small Pyralid group. In two localities the crops had been rendered leafless by this pest. Unfortunately, time did not permit one to rear the perfect insect, but this could be easily accomplished, and with little trouble the whole life-cycle could be worked out. In this case a poisonous insecticide might be used with comparative safety; and possibly Paris Green, at the rate of one ounce to twenty gallons of water, will be found effective. SOME INSECT PESTS IN THE WEST INDIES. 59 Sweet Potato Weevil* (Cyhis formicarius, Fab.). This very characteristic insect (fig. 40) is a x^est of greater or less importance in nearly all countries where the sweet potato is under cultivation. It has been recorded from Africa, India, China, Mada- gascar, Louisiana and Florida in the United States, and is said to be a common pest in Cuba. Now, unfortunately, one has to record its occurrence in Jamaica, though, so far as can be gathered, it is not generally distributed in the West Indian Islands. Its introduction into the United States was doubtless from Cuba, and the probability is that before very long we shall find that it has been introduced from the same country into the other adjacent islands. Fig. 40. — Sweet Potato Weevil, male and female. (Natural size and enlarged.) The larva or grub is a small, white, legless creature, which passes the whole of its existence in eating or cutting tunnels in the tubers, filling them with rejectamenta, which ultimately leads to the decay of the potato. Pupation takes place in the tuber, the whole life-cycle occupying about four weeks; and as one generation follows another in rapid succession, the increase is often so great as to render the cultiva- tion of the sweet potato almost impossible. The only practical measures so far devised for dealing with this pest are : — 1. To dig up the tubers as soon as they are found to be infested, and feed those containing insects to stock. 2. The complete removal of all tubers, as any that may be left in the ground will serve as breeding-places for the insects. * See Annual Report, Dept. Agriculture, Washington, 1879, p. 249, for article on this pest. I am greatly indebted to Mr. E. J. Wortley for examples of this curious weevil. (50 JOURNAL Oh' THE KOYAL llC)K'riCULTU llAL SOOlhrrV 3. (\Misecii(ive crops oi" swoot [)oUiios alioukl iio(i ])v i^rowii on infeskHl ground. 4. Tubers that are jiIumUh] (Iccply arc said to be uiore rea-dily adtacked than those planted near the suri'ace. 0. The importations of tubers shoukl be subject to quarantine, and they shouki be thoroughly examined by a competent authority before tliey are admitted into a new country. Cotton- Stainer [Dysdercus ? andreae). The only cotton-stainer observed in Jamaica is apparently the rather widely distributed West Indian species Dysdercus andreae (Liim.). This insect literally swarmed in a neglected cotton-field in the parish of St. Andrew ; and in many instances the bolls were almost covered by these brightly-coloured pests. It is scarcely necessary, therefore, to add that the crop was seriously injured by them. It should be pointed out, however, that the field in question had been so grossly neglected that at least one-third of the crop had been completely destroyed by noxious weeds. These conditions were taken as evident signs that the cultivator had lost all interest in the work and had let the ground lapse into a semi-wild state. Questioned as to the destruction wrought by the cotton-stainer, the owner stated that comparatively little haim was done by these pests, providing always that the insects in question were removed from the cotton before the process of ginning. That this statement was inaccurate was proved by an examination of the bolls which showed clearly that they were seriously injured, being for the most part undersized, and the fibre being also brittle and distinctly dis- coloured. During the dry season in Jamaica there is evidently a succession of broods and these broods overlap, so that insects in all stages are found living together sometimes upon a single cotton boll. In the West Indies the following methods of control have been adopted : — 1. Baits consisting of little heaps of cotton-seed or pieces of sugar- cane- placed at close intervals between the plants. The insects thus collected together are best killed by dropping them into a bucket con- taining a small quantity of water with a little kerosene added. 2. The second method, usually adopted when the bolls are well formed, is to jar or shake the plants over a kerosene tin or bucket con- taining the mixture mentioned in 1. The insects usually fall from the plants on the least disturbance, so that no great force is needed to dislodge them. Jarring or shaking injudiciously done, as it would be in all probability by the West Indian native, might cause serious injury to the plants, etc. The employment of coolies or strict supervision of the native by a responsible person would be necessary. Natural enemies. — Ballou''' says that " Cotton-stainers appear to be remarkably exempt from the attacks of natural enemies," but he * Journ. of tlte Imp. Agric. Dept. for the W. Incl., vol. vii. p. 78. SOiME INSECT PESTS IN THE WEST INDIES. 01 adds that he has observed an adult lady-bh-d (Megilla maculata) eating a young larva of Bysderciis andreae. It would seem, however, that this is the only authentic instance of a predaceous insect attacking any member of the genus Dysdercvs. Neither is there apparently any record of birds or other vertebrates having been found to feed upon these bugs. It may be of some interest, therefore, if not of economic importance, to state that while in Jamaica I found examples of Dysdercus andreae in the stomach of a Parrot-billed Blackbird (Crotophaga ani) (fig. 38). It would appear from the few dissections which were made that this l)ird is almost, if not quite, omnivorous in its diet, as the following record of the food-contents of three stomachs of these birds will show: — Locality. — Stony Hill, St. Andrew, January 4-., 1909. No. 1. Contents. — Almost filled with portions of the nests (cells, larvae, and pupae) of the common paper-building wasp [Polistes crinita).; there were also a few skins of moth larvge, and one spinose skin of the larva of a Nymphalid butterfly. 1 beautifully coloured beetle {Homophoeta equinoctialis, Linn.) of the Chrysomelid group, having a yellow thorax, with deep -violet wing- cases bearing eight large white spots. 1 weevil (RJiyncopliorus sp.). 3 specimens of the pupal stage of the bright orange-red " Cotton- stainer " {Dysdercus sp.). 1 small mollusc (non det.). 1 purple berry of the noxious Lantana. 3 hard brown seeds (non det.). 1 Texas-fever tick (M. annulatus anstralis), a partly engorged female. Locality. — Stony Hill and Constant Spring, St. Andrew, January 14, 1909. No. 2. Contents. — Large fragments of the common " green stink- bug " {Loxa flavicollis, Drury), in both immature and adult stages, the stomach being well filled with the remains of this insect. No. 3. Contents. — 2 almost perfect examples of the " green stink-bug " (L. flavicollis) and many fragments of others, the stomach being about half filled with the remains of this insect. 1 beetle resembling a small Harpalus. 2 small grey weevils and a number of fragments of another Ehynco- phorus beetle of a dark-brown colour. 1 spider. 1 Texas-fever tick (M. annulatus australis), a partly engorged female. The finding of ticks is of economic importance ; while the discovery of the green " stink-bug " (Loxa flavicollis) is of great bionomic interest. This bug, whose odour is horribly offensive, does not possess any warning coloration; but, being of a uniformly green colour, is highly protected and difficult to discover when resting among the leafy branches of a tree or shrub. It is common, but not apparently abundant, though it is not infrequently attracted at night by artificial light. The amount of odoriferous matter contained in the stomachs of the birds found to 62 JOURNAL OF TTIK BOYAL TTORTICllLTUTJ AL SOCIETY. contain the iHMnnins o[ iliis bug was so oITensive as to render tlie operation of (lissoi iion positively nnbearable, and the fcptid odour was with difficult}" removed from the hands of the operator. Another record of interest in refei'ence to the food of this bird was made one day in the month of January, while watching the habits of a pair bringing food to a fully-fledged young one, which had perched itself in a very convenient place for observation, quite close to where the writer was seated. At first one of the old birds was seen to advance with a huge mouthful of something, appearing most like a bundle of dark-coloured feathers, which it was seen to procure from the foot of a tree not fni- away. This object was offered to the young bird and accepted by it iuuuediately ; and wliile it was making a strenuous effort to swallow the dry-looking morsel a couple of missiles thrown into the tree made it relinquish its hold of the object, which, when secured, jiroved to be the somewhat mangled remains of one of the huge black " Witch Moths " {Erebus argarisfa), measuring originally nearly six inches across the wing. Scale Insects Infesting Rubber, Broadly speaking, the rubber-producing plants are particularly immune from the attacks of insects. In Jamaica two species of scale insects were found infesting rubber plants, but only one can at present be considered harmfuL The round purple scale {Aspidiotus ficus) was found in small colonies on the leaves of Para rubber (Ilevea hrasiliensis) in the Chapelton district, but not in sufficient numbers to cause any injury to the plants. This insect is, hov/ever, a great pest in many parts of the world, so that its presence should be looked upon with suspicion, and if found to increase in numbers should be checked before it gets headway and thus becomes a menace to such an important article of commerce. The Central American rubber [Castilloa elastica) in certain portions of the island is, however, very severely attacked by a common white Diaspid scale (fig. 39) (Biaspis amygdali), and so serious was the infestation in the Chapelton district that measures were taken to check its ravages. The young trees which were examined by the writer had attained a height of some ten feet or more, and the long, slender stems of a large percentage of these were found to be covered with the scales, and in those colonies which had become overcrowded the insect had migrated to the leaves, on which they had fixed themselves chiefly, or almost exclusively, along the ribs of the great leafy fronds, forming distinct white lines which were quite conspicuous even at so great a distance from the ground. At first it was difficult tO' account for the presence of this insect, and it was assumed that possibly it was present upon the young plants when imported from the nurseries. But on carefully examining other * Mr. Maxwell Lefroy rerords {7m]i. Dept. Agric. Bull., vol. iii. 1902) the occurrence of Af ■ » - \ P -3 !i c 1 \ \ ■4 f \ \ \ > f \ 1 / To SO' Fig. 65. — Mean Temperature of the Aiu ; Mean Maximum and Minimum Temperatures of the Air ; and Mean Minimum Temperature on the Grass, for each Month. The prevailing winds were south-westerly and westerly. The average velocity of the wind was 6^ miles an hour. There were 196 hours of bright sunshine, equal to 40 per cent, of the greatest possible amount. There was only 1 day on which no sunshine was recorded. August. — The month opened with duU, cool weather, but by the 4th an improvement had taken place, and until the end of the first half 140 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. of the month it was fine and very warm, with no rain. Then the v/eather became again unsettled, with cool days and a good deal of rain, and this continued with very little* change till the end of the month. The mean temperature for the month was about normal, because the high readings of the thermometer in the first half served to balance the colder days of the second half; the amount of sunshine also, although low for August, was yet better than in July, as that of July was an advance on the amount recorded in June. The daily amounts of sunshine were, however, frequently small, and the total was below the normal. The following are the results of the observations made at Wisley : Mean teniperature of the air in shade ... ... ... ... 61°.5 Highest „ „ „ 86°.0 on the 12th Lowest ,, ,, ,, ... . 44°.0 „ 3rd Lowest „ on the grass 37°.0 „ 3rd At 1 ft. At 2 ft. At 4 ft. deep. deep. deep. Mean temperature of the soil at 9 a.m 62°.3 62°. 8 59°.7 Highest „ „ „ ... . 66°.5 64°.9 61°.0 Lowest ,, „ ... . 58°.9 60°.l 58°.l Mean relative humidity of the air at 9 a.m. (complete saturation being represented by 100) 73 % Rain fell on 13 days to the total depth of ... 2-16 in. (Equivalent to about 10 gallons of water to the square yard.) Heaviest fall on any day 0-50 in. on the 17th The prevailing winds were westerly. The average velocity of the wind was 4| miles an hour. There were 226 hours of bright sunshine, equal to 51 per cent, of the greatest possible amount. There were only 2 days on which no sunshine was recorded. Se'pteinher. — This was another in the sequence of dull, cold months which had characterized this summer. In no part of the king- dom did the thermometer rise to more than just over 70°, and in many parts of Southern England 70° Was not reached at all; indeed, at Wisley there were eleven days on which the maximum temperature was below 60°. On the other hand, the night temperature was frequently high, and, as in the preceding month, the daily range was small. There was a good deal of rain, and on the 17th a severe thunderstorm in the Thames Valley caused a fall of 1*4 in. of rain at Wisley. There were also heavy falls of rain towards the close of the month, especially over the Western Counties and in parts of Ireland. The amount of bright sunshine was small everywhere, and even in the Channel Islands, where it was most abundant, it did not amount to 50 per cent, of the possible amount. At Wisley it only amounted to 31 per cent. Northerly and north-easterly winds were predominant during the greater part of the month. The following af e the result s of the observatrions made at Wisley : Mean temperature of the air in shade » ... 54°.5 Highest „ „ „ ... 70°.0 on the 6th Lowest „ „ „ ... ... ST^.O „ 2nd Lowest ,, on the grass 30°.0 ,, lOtb Number of days of ground frost 3 REPORT ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT WISLEY. 141 At lft. At 2 ft. At 4 ft. deep. deep. deep. Mean temperature of the soil at 9 a.m 56°.6 58°.l 57°.6 Highest „ „ . 59°.l 60°.7 59°.7 Lowest „ „ „ 54°.8 56°.l 56^.5 Mean relative humidity of the air at 9 a.m. (complete saturation being represented by 100) 86 % Eain fell on 20 days to the total depth of 3-42 in. (Equivalent to about 16 gallons of water to the square yard.) Heaviest fall on any day 1"41 in. on the 17th The prevailing winds were northerly. The average velocity of the wind was 4 miles an hour. There were 116 hours of bright sunshine, equal to 31 per cent, of the greatest possible amount. There were 4 days on which no sunshine was recorded. Fig. 66. — Distribution and Velocity of the Wind for each Month. Upper diagram shows the annual distribution of winds round the compass. The prevalence of calms is indicated on the same scale by the diameter of the circle. Lower diagram shows the mean velocity of the wind for each month of the year. October. — "The mild and moist southerly and south-westerly winds which prevailed during the greater part of this month were accom- panied by ar good deal of cloud and by a large fall of rain. The tem- j perature during the day was never very high, but, on the other hand, !^ the nights' were unusually warm, owing to the cloudy skies checking terrestrial radiation, and the result was a high mean temperature. Night frosts were rare till the close of the month, when some very sharp ones were experienced, and at Wisley the thermometer on the grass fell to 22° on the night of the 29th-30th. The rainfall was very 142 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. heavy in many parts of the kmgdom, especially in the South and West, while in the East and North-East it was in some districts a good deal less than the average; at Wisley rain fell on twenty-three days, and the total fall was four inches. Sunshine was generally deficient, and the winds were stronger than the average. Tli-^ following are the results of the observations made at Wisley : Mean temperature of the air in shade ... ... ... ... 52°.7 Highest „ „ , 65°. 0 on the 1st Lowest „ „ „ 29°.0 „ 30th Lowest „ on the grass 22°. 4 „ 30th N amber of clays of ground frost 3 At 1 ft. At 2 fc. At 4 ft. deep. deep. deep. Mean temperature of the soil at 9 a.m 53°.5 55°.2 55°.5 Highest „ „ „ 57^8 57°.5 56°.5 Lowest „ „ „ 43°.6 48°.4 52°.3 Mean relative humidity of the air at 9 a.m. (complete saturation being represented by 100) ... 84 % Rain fell on 23 days to the total depth of 4-00 in. (Equivalent to about 18| gallons of water to the square yard.) Heaviest fall on any day 1-00 in. on the 28tb The prevailing winds were southerly and south-westerly. The average velocity of the wind was 7*3 miles an hour. There were only 89| hours of bright sunshine, equal to 31 per cent, of the greatest possible amount. There were 9 days on which no sunshine was recorded, and the average daily amount was 2-9 hours. November. — The weather of November was in marked contrast to that of October, the warm, moist, sunless condition which then pre- vailed being followed by sunny but cold weather, with a mean tem- perature considerably below the average. Low night temperatures were not infrequent, and at Wisley the grass thermometer fell to 10*^ or 12° below freezing-point on several occasions. The rainfall was remarkably light ; over the greater part of Great Britain it did not exceed an inch, and in m.any places the total fall was less than half an inch. At Wisley it amounted to less than six-tenths of an inch, the greater part of which fell during the last four days of the month. The amount of sunshine was above the normal for the month in all parts of the kingdom, and over some of the Southern and Western Counties the excess was considerable. The following are the results of the observations made at Wisley : Mean temperature of the air in shade 40°.6 Highest „ „ „ 56°.0 on the 6th Lowest „ „ „ 26°.0 „ 9th Lowest „ on the grass 20*^'. 0 23rd Number of days of ground frost ' ... 20 At ] ft. At 2 ft. At 4 f *. deep. deep. deep. Mean temperature of the soil at 9 A.M. 42^.1' 45°.4 48°.3 Highest „ „ „ 49°.3 50°.5 51°.8 Lowest „ „ „ 36°.6 40°.9 44°.8 Mean relative humidity of the air at 9 a.m. (complete saturation being represented by 100) 91 % I EEPORT ON METEOROLOGiCAL OBSERVATIONS AT WISLEY. 14S Rain fell on 12 days, to the total depth of 0*58 in. (Equivalent to nearly *2f gallons of water to the square yard.) Heaviest fall on any day 0-26 in. on the 29th The prevailing winds were south-westerly. The average velocity of the wind was 4-7 miles an hour. There were 77-| hours of bright sunshine, equal to 29 per cent, of the greatest possible amount. There were 9 days on which no sunshine was recordedi December. — The weather of December was very variable and un- settled, with frequent strong winds and gales, and a good deal of rain and — towards the close of the month — snow. Temperature also varied .considerably, ranging at Wisley in twenty-four hours from a maximum of 54"^ to a mininuun of 22°, and some sharp night frosts occurred. Over the Northern parts of the kingdom the mean tem- perature was below the average, but over the Southern and Western Couniies the mean did not differ much from the normal. There were many days in succession on which no bright sunshine was recorded ; but on the other hand there were a few bright intervals, and the total amount of sunshine registered, although not large, was yet not very much below the average, indeed in some districts the average was slightly exceeded. The following are the residts of the observations made at Wisley : Mean temperature of the air in shade ... ... ... ... 40°.2 Highest „ „ „ 51°.0 onthe22nd Lowest „ „ „ 22°.0 „ 21st Lowest „ on the grass 16°.0 „ 21st Number of days of ground frost 19 At 1 ft. At 2 ft. At 4 ft. deep. deep. deep. Mean temperature of the soil at 9 A.M. ... ... ... 39°.6 41°.9 43°.9 Highest „ „ „ 44°.6 43°.9 45°.4 Lowest „ „ „ 31°.8 39".! 42°.6 Mean relative humidity of the air at 9 a.m. (complete saturation being represented by 100) 91 % Rain fell on 20 days to the total depth of 3-00 in. (Equivalent to about 14 gallons of water to the square yard.) Heaviest fall on any day 0*54 in. on the 17th The prevailing winds were south-westerly. The average velocity of the wind was 8 miles an hour. There were 58 hours of bright sunshine, equal to 24 per cent, of the greatest possible amount. There were 14 days on which no sunshine was recorded. 144 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. THE MUTATION THEORY: A OEITICISM/^ By Rev. Professor Geo. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., V.M.H. To explain how Professor de Vries came to broach this theory it is necessary to state his original data and the conditions of his experi- ments. A potato field of nearly 6,000 square yards at Hilversum, in Northern Holland, was abandoned in 1870, and has since lain fallow. Oenoihera Lamarchiana was grown in a small bed in an adjoining park, whence it began to spread into the field in 1875. In -abO'wt ten years it extended over the whole of it. In 1889 intersecting paths were made, with the view of planting the plot with trees. The ground, which consists of almost pure sand, was dug up to a depth of three or four feet on both sides of the paths. Two " species," as Professor de Vries calls them, had spontaneously appeared — 0. hrevistylis and 0. laevifolia— -first observed in 1887. The first experiments were made in 1886, rosettes and seeds of 0. Lmuarchana and seeds of 0. hrevistylis being planted in the experimental ground in Amsterdam. 0. hrevistylis. — It was difficult to distinguish this from 0. La^narck- iana before flowering, except by the rounded apex of the leaves. The flower-buds were shorter, thicker, and blunter, and it blossoms later into the autumn, having a corolla as large as that of 0. Lamar ckiana, but marescent. The pollen was plentiful, and transferred by humble bees; but the style is very sJiort, and the stigmas flatter, the fruits tvere small and /tad only one or two seeds. May not this degeneration in the pistil have been a result of impoverishment from the sandy soil ? Male catkins arise on the weaker twigs, but female on the stronger ones of the Cupuliferae. It was not cultivated. An unrecorded number of seeds of 0. laevifolia were sown in a prepared border, and gave rise to both 0. laevifolia and 0. Lamar cliiana ; but, as self-pollination was not practised until 1894, they did not always come true until that period. The following are the peculiarities of 0. laevifolia. It was weaker and smaller than 0. Lamar cliiana ', the leaves were flatter; the petals were smaller, narrower, and not emarginate. These features obviously imply a certain amount of degeneration. We now come to the Lamarchiana family, commenced in 1895. Since that time Professor de Vries says he manured his ylants heavily, isolating any mutating individual as soon as it could be recognized as such.f In these words, as it seems to me, we have the clue to the explanation of his mutations ; ^or in his * * Species and Varieties : their ^The Mutation Theory: Experirnents and Observations on the Origin of Species iri the Vegetable Kingdom. By Hugo de Vries, Professor of Botany ab Amsterdam. Translated by Professor J. B. Farmer and A. D. Darbishire. Vol. i. "The Origin of Species by ]\[utation." (Kegan Paul, Trench : London, 1910.) t p. 222. THE MUTATION THEORY : A CRITICISM. 145 Origin by Mutation " he had observed, when speaking of the external causes of the individual differences among seedlings : " Moisture and manure differ on different portions of the same bed in a way unavoid- able even by the most careful preparation. Some seeds germinate on moist and rich spots, while their neighbours are impeded by local dryness or by distance from manure. Some come to light on a sunny day and increase their first leaves rapidly, while the following day the weather may be unfavourable and greatly retard growth. The individual differences seem to be due, at least in a very great measure, to such apparent trifles." The mutations or " species " are named gigas, albida, ohlonga, ruhrinervis, nanelJu, lata, and scintillans. Gigas is an exception to the rule of being weak, for while " most of the new forms are weaker than the parent species (0. Lauiarckiana) this is in almost every respect stronger and bigger and more heavily buill " t It only arose once in the Laiiiarckiafia family and twice in others. The principal difference lies in the fruits being half as long and the seeds less numerous, but larger and heavier than those of the parent. Ruhrinervis is the only one not inferior tO' 0. Lauiarckiana in pollen and seed, but it has narrow and long leaves, with red ribs, red calyx and fruit. It has a more vigorous habit ; but still the stems are brittle, especially of the annuals, in consequence of a deficiency of bast fibres. It was one of the commonest, arising sixty-six times from 0. Lamar cki- ana or others. As the red colouring matter, like the red corpuscles of blood, is now regarded as an oxygen-carrier, this may account for the superior vigour of the mutation. In contrast with the two preceding types let us take albida, so called from the paleness of the colours, due to impoverishment or chloro- sis. The stem is very delicate and brittle. It is a slow grower, with a shorter stem than that of 0. Lamar ckiana. It survived the winter with difficulty, requiring great care to keep it alive. It would (Professor de Vries adds) most certainly have perished in the struggle for life at Hilversum, being also difficult to germinate. The leaves are narrow, very uneven and pointed, but with a bluntish tip, pale-green or whitish- grey, not due to hair, but to a swelling of the outer walls of the epidermal cells. This " species " would seem to illustrate Darwin's description : ' ' We may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed." § I 'Suspect that any florist who might read the above diagnosis of this so-called " species," 0. albida, would say that it was suffering from over-manure sickness. It will be needless to quote so fully again; but Professor de Vries admits that with the two exceptions mentioned all his species were more or less delicate. Perhaps a word or two of his expressions will indicate this. * Op. cit. p. 720. t p. 318. + p. 227. § Origin of Sjjecies, &c., sixth edition, p. 63. VOL. XXXVI. r 1.46 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. 0. leptocarpa flowers late, and has long, slender fruits which seldom ripen; the stem is weak. 0. nanella, as a dwarf, is weak, often incompletely developed; it has a small quantity of pollen or none. The stigmas stick together. The author says: These and other malformations of the dwarfs are often due to a disease, and as such depend on outer circumstances "; hence 0. nanella should be raised as a biennial, when it is stronger. 0. scintillans is much more delicate than 0. Lamarcldana. 0. elliptica is weak and very easily overgrown; it grew very slowly even when transplanted and treated with every possible care. Many rosettes died in the winter. Only ten plants flowered, but seed was obtained from five; the pollen is often barren. This feature is " quite normal for many species of Oenothera." 0. suhlinearis is a weak species, mostly perishing as young rosettes; only four survived, and one only had fertile seed. 0. lata was solely female, so that its offspring were crosses, but De Vries calls it a "species." The stem and branches are weak; needing a support. It yielded very few seeds. The reader will see from the preceding that from a systematic botanist's point of view scarcely one, if any, of these so-called species are worthy of the name. One cannot escape from the conviction that the features given as specific characters are simply individual varia- tions due to a tendency to degeneration in consequence of being trans- ferred from a xerophytic (sandy) environment to a soil supersaturated | with manure. " Manure-sickness " would, therefore, be in all proba- j bility the cause of their almost universal weakness, &c. j Having now given a brief account of the characters which Professor | de Vries enumerates as characterizing his species " or " mutations," his deductions must be considered. He often alludes to Jordan's " elementary species " — i.e. the number of constant " forms " which, collectively, make a Linnsean species. But, as to how they arise, his ; view is that it is due to some internal causes, yet, apparently, not | without some direct action of the conditions of life, as he accounted for individual differences in the passage quoted above. Still he does not appear to realize the obvious fact that in his own cultivations it was the change from a barren " sandy soil " at Hilversum to a " heavily manured " one at Amsterdam that gave rise to his, mostly, sickly race of mutants. | Why he obtained several more or less definite results was, in his I view, because Oenothera Lamarchiana happened to be passing through a " mutation period "; that all his " species " were originally latent in the parent form until he cultivated them, when they put in an ! appearance. Here, therefore, he fails to apply his own interpretation, j quoted above. For there is no reason to assume any such latency, since the changes are simply due to the responsive power of the protoplasm, that is called into action by changed conditions of life. If such a latency were a universal trait of life then, it might be argued that all the fleshy maritime species were latent in the thin- THE MUTATION THEORY : A CRITICISM. 147 leaved inland ones of many genera, or the non-spiny pears and plums of our gardens were latent in the wild pear and sloe, &c. This con- ception of latency is thus easily reducible to a reductio ad ahsurdum. Professor de Vries of course lays stress on the constancy of his forms, but that is a result to be expected, for he apparently grew them, generation after generation, in the same conditions in which they arose ; and so the " direct action " of the same soil acted on the offspring in the same way as on the parent. It is a significant fact that the two kinds he found in the sandy soil of Hilversum (0. laevifolia and 0. brevi- siylis) never appeared in his cultivations, though they seem to have proved constant when he grew them in the garden. This would be in accordance with M. E. A. Carriere's experience, who writes; " Faisons remarquer que les diverses combinaisons faites pour per- petuer les vari^t^s, ou pour en obtenir de nouvelles, reposent sur cette loi generale que, dans la nature, toiit tend d se reiproduire et meme d s'^iendre, que par consequent les modifications peuvent nou seulement devenir hereditaires, mais qu'elles peuvent encore servir de moyen pour arriver a d'autres modifications, a etendre et a multiplier de plus en plus les series ty piques."* Professor de Vries would draw the distinction between a " muta- tion " and a " variety " by limiting the latter to a single character, but such is not the view of any systematic botanist. Open Hooker's Student's Flora at any page, the first variety that meets the eye will be found to be only recognizable by more than one character, so that in this respect there is no difference between a mutant and a variety. The suddenness of the appearance of the changes in a plant is a normal or general feature, provided the new environment is markedly different from that of the parent. A change to fleshiness at once occurs if plants be watered with a weak solution of salt; and, conversely, maritime plants may lose it if raised from seed in sand. Aquatic plants, as Ranuncuhis heteropJiyllus, grown by seed on land become very different plants, anatomically, for they are now in adaptation to air; but if they be transferred to water before they are fully grown the new leaves will be of the aquatic type, the aerial type perishing. M. Car- riere raised spindle-rooted and turnip-rooted radishes in a loose and compact soil, respectively, from seed of the wild Eaphanus Raphani- strum; and these forms are now hereditary. Consequently it is difficult to^ accept Professor de Vries 's assertion that " the laws of mutability are quite different from those of individual variation. '"f The degrees, if any, of difference in forms between mutations and varieties seem to be inappreciable, while those of con- stancy or inconstancy are the same; they both appear stiddenly — that is to say, while the seedling is growing to maturity, it responds to the new conditions of life, and if the new structures it puts on render it more suitable they are adaptations. If they turn out unhealthy, as in Professor de Vries 's " species, " it proves that the environment is not a * Prodnciion et Fixation des Varietes dans les Vegitaux, p. 9, 1865. t p. 6. L 2 148 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. healthy one, and they cannot form structures so as to thrive under them. Professor de Vries makes the seemingly strange remark that " the origin of species is not the same thing as the origin of specific characters.""^' But a species is only known by its specific characters, and whenever these arise for the first time a new species must come into existence. He adds, We hardly know what specific characters are." Surely any Flora in which species are described would tell him? He says that " the only means by which breeders can get new forms is by hybridization."! Is he not aware that numerous forms of garden vegetables arose solely by cultivation in various soils — e.g., the cabbage tribe, many forms of carrots, turnips, and radishes, the original garden pansies, Shirley poppies ? He next remarks " that the limits of collective species arose by the dropping out of links in the chain of elementary species."! But what proof is there that the links ever existed? The " links " between his original 0, Lamarchiana and each of his own mutants, mutations, or species — for he uses all three terms — never appeared. If the new environment be markedly different from the old one, then the seedlings grow up markedly different in response to it. The amount of change in them is regulated by that of the environment. " The study of specific characters will some day form the most important branch of investigation." I This has been done by ecology. Its great value lies in the proofs (by induction and experiment) of the origin of species by response to the conditions of life. E.g. Professor E. Warming, in speaking of the xerophytic characters of desert plants, observes : ' ' The question arises whether these adaptations to the medium should be regarded as a result of natural selection, or whether they owe their origin to the action of the conditions of the medium, in modifying forms, exercised directly. I adopt the latter view. The characters of adaptation, thus directly acquired, have become fixed and hereditary. "§ Professor de Vries would regard selection as an element in the origin of species by mutation ; but Darwin wrote : ** By the term definitei action [i.e., of changed conditions of life] I mean the action of such a nature that when many individuals of the same variety are exposed during several generations to any change in their physical conditions of life, all or nearly all the individuals are modified in the same manner. A new sub-variety would thus be produced without the aid of selec- tion. "|| Ecology has proved this to be the true and only origin of species. Yet Professor de Vries, while referring to the fact that ** many authors have suggested that altered conditions of life exert a direct influence on animals and plants . . . and evoke an adaptive response, " nevertheless repudiates it by saying : " But this assumption [?] seems to be no more than a begging of the question we are trying to answer. ' ' 11 The Pro- fessor thus confesses that he knows not what ecology has done ! * p. 56, t p. 59. X p. 60. § Lnqoa Santa, p. 465. 1892. II A?i. and PI. under Dom. ii. 271. ^ p. 200. COMMONPLACE NOTES. 149 COMMONPLACE NOTES. By the Seceetary, Supeeintendent, and Editoe. Injueious Fumes eeom Stokehole Chimneys. On several occasions during the past few years we have seen bad results due to the stokehole chimney being erected too near glass structures. The fumes of sulphur dioxide and other gases penetrate into the houses and do much damage when the wind is blowing so as to drive them over the glass, particularly when the ventilators are a little open. Not long ago w^e saw both vines and peaches with severely scorched foliage and fruit partly scalded, the whole appear- ing as if the ventilation had been grossly mismanaged, while other houses under the same man's charge and only a short distance away were in excellent condition. On investigation it was found that the chimney w^as at the end of these damaged houses, and its top almost level with the ridge, and whenever there was a south or south-west wind the fumes were blown right in. In this case the evil was aggravated by the position of the chimney as the weather was always warmer and ventilation necessary wEen the wind was in the directions mentioned. As it would have been very costly to have moved the stokehole and rearranged the heating apparatus, the chimney was raised twenty feet, with satisfactory results. An almost similar instance occurred with a range of plant houses where the chimney was at one end of the range, the damage always being worst in the winter, when extra firing was necessary and when flowers were most precious. In spite of well g'lazed houses the fumes found an entrance when the wind was in a quarter that drove them over the glass. Eaising the height of the chimney in this case improved matters, and only occasionally was any injury done. But all danger would be avoided if the chimneys were placed a little distance aWay and built sufficiently liigh to carry the fumes away and above the glass, UndesIeable Water Plants. Of all the undesirable water plants planted in ponds Villarsia nymphaeoides is the worst the writer knows. Its pretty neat yellow blossom and bronzy leaf are most attractive, and it would be a welcome plant for the water garden if it would keep in bounds ; but it grows and spreads so rapidly that it will quickly cover a large sheet of water and smother all the other aquatic plants in the place. We have tried to eradicate it by thoroughly cleaning out the pond, taking out every root that could be found, and leaving the pond perfectly dry for a month or more. Yet the following year it was as bad as ever. It is a very curious fact that in some ponds and lakes Aponogeton distachyon absolutely refuses to live, in spite of the most careful attempts 150 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. to establish it, while in others it grows so rampantly as to crowd out everything else. But the pleasant scent of its flowers compensates largely for its other drawbacks. Bullrushes, if kept within bounds, give a pleasing appearance to the margin of a lake, but one ought to be very careful how they are introduced, because they will grow well into deepish water and spread far out, making it very difficult to get them out by the root, and unless tiiey are kept in bounds by pulling them out roots and all they soon diminish the size of the lake and become a nuisance. Some of the rushes are as bad, and Acorus CalaruiLs is apt to spread too hluch. With such a host of beautiful aquatic plants to choose from that give little trouble it is scarcely worth while to plant those of a doubtful character. Destructive Insects and ^ests. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries are making determined efforts to deal with several of the more dangerous pests of cultivated crops, and the attention of Fellows is drawn to the following " Order " recently issued by the Board, particularly as some of the pests are widespread and common and liable to be met with in almost any garden. Most of the pests mentioned in the " Order " have been referred to frequently in the " Notes and Abstracts " in this Journal, and some have been recently dealt with at length. It should be clearly understood that " The American Gooseberry Mildew Order of 1909," which ordered the notification of the occur- rence of the American Gooseberry Mildew, and gave directions for the action to be taken by Local Authorities in dealing with it, is not revoked by this Order, so that the " American Gooseberry Mildew, ' S phaerotheca mors-uvae, is still a notifiable pest. The following is the text of the recent Order : — DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS AND PESTS ORDER OF 1910. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, by virtue and in exercise of the powers vested in them under the Destructive Insects and Pests Acts, 1877 and 1907, do order, and it is hereby ordered, as follows: — Notification of Discovery of Insect or Pest. 1. — (1.) The occupier of any premises on which an insect or pest mentioned in the Schedule to this Order exists, shall forthwith notify the fact, with particulars of the time and place of discovery, to the officer appointed by the Local Authority to receive such notices, or, if no such officer has been appointed, to the Board; and, where practic- able, a specimen of the insect or pest shall accompany the notice. (2.) An officer of a Local Authority who receives a notice under j this Article shall forthwith report the fact to the Local Authority. (3.) The Local Authority on receiving in any manner notice of the existence or apparent existence of an insect or pest mentioned in the Schedule to this Order shall forthwith transmit the information to the Board and take such steps as may be necessary to determine to what extent the insect or pest exists. COMMONPLACE NOTES. 151 Powers of Entry. 2. An Inspector or other officer appointed in that behalf by the Local Authority and any Inspector of the Board may, upon production ii so required of his appointment or authority, enter any premises on which he has reason to believe that an insect or pest mentioned in the Schedule to this Order exists or has recently existed, and examine any plant, fruit, crop, seeds, tubers, bulbs, layers or cuttings on such premises. Action to he taken hy Local Authority. 3. — (1.) An Inspector or other officer of the Local Authority or of the Board, acting under their direction, may at any time and from time to time by a notice served on an occupier of premises on which an insect or pest mentioned in the Schedule hereto exists or recently has existed, require him to adopt such measures for prevention of the spread of the insect or pest as are specified in the notice. (2.) Where a Local Authority have consented to pay compensation for such destruction, the notice under this Article may require the occupier of premises on which an insect or pest mentioned in the Schedule hereto exists or recently has existed, to destroy by burning or other effective method all or any of the plants, fruit or crops on the premises, and the Local Authority shall pay compensation for such destruction subject and according to the provisions in that behalf of the Destructive Insects and Pests Acts, 1877 and 1907. (3.) A notice under this Article may prescribe the time within which the adoption of any measure thereby prescribed shall be com- pleted. (4.) An occupier may appeal to the Board against a notice served on him under this Article by an Inspector or other officer of the Local Authority, and the Board may, after consultation with the Local Authority, cancel the notice or modify its requirements in such manner as the Board think fit. (5.) For the purposes of this Order a notice shall be deemed to be served on a person if it is delivered to him personally or left for him at his last known place of abode or business or sent through the post in a letter addressed to him there, and a notice or other document purporting to be signed by an Inspector or other officer of a Local Authority or of the Board shall be primd facie evidence that it was signed by him acting under the directions of the Local Authority or the Board as the case may be. Penalty on Sale or Use for Planting of Diseased Seeds, d:c. 4. Every person who shall knowingly use, or sell for use, for planting any plant, seed, tuber, bulb, layer or cutting attacked by an insect or pest mentioned in the Schedule to this Order, or any seed, tuber, bulb, layer or cutting which has been derived from a plant so attacked and is capable of spreading the insect or pest, shall be liable on conviction to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds. luA JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTTCTTLTTTRAL SOCIETY. Prohibition of Sale of Specimens. 5. It shall not be lawful, except with the written permission of the Board, to import, sell, or offer for sale a living specimen of any insect or pest mentioned in the Schedule to this Order. Penalties. 6. Every person shall be liable on conviction to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds, who — (1) knowingly fails to give such notification as is required by Article I of this Order; or (2) fails to adopt such measures for prevention of the spread of the disease as are specified in a notice served on him under this Order ; or (3) wilfully obstructs or impedes any Inspector or other officer when acting under this Order; or (4) imports, sells or offers for sale an insect or pest in contra- vention of this Order. Notification of Order. 7. This Order shall be published by the Local Authority in accord- ance with any direction given by the Board. Revocation of Order. 8. The Destructive Insects and Pests Order of 1908 is hereby revoked. Execution of the Order. 9. Each Local Authority shall carry into effect this Order within their District, and shall appoint such Inspectors or other officers for that purpose as may be necessary. Definitions. 10. In this Order — " The Board " means the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries; " Local Authority " means a local authority having power to execute and enforce the Diseases of Animals Act, 1894; and " Dis- trict " means the area in which the Local Authority has such power to act. " Application of the Order. 11. This Order shall apply to Great Britain. Short Title. 12. This Order may be cited as the Destructive Insects and PpsTS Order of 1910. In witness whereof the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have hereunto set their Official Seal this third day of L. S. ]j May, nineteen hundred and ten. T. H. MiDDLETON, Assistant Secretary. COMMONPLACE NOTES. 153 SCHEDULE. Insects and Pests to which this Order applies. The Vine Louse {Phylloxera vastatrix, Planchon). The San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock). The Mediterranean Fruit Fly {Ceratitis capitata, Wiedemann). The Colorado Beetle {Doryphora decemlineata, Say). The Large Larch Sawfly {Nematus erichsonii, Hartig). The Potato Moth (Lita solanella, Boisduval). The Gipsy Moth {Liparis (Ocneria) dispar, Linne). The Brown Tail Moth {Euproctis chrysorrhoea, Linne). The Nun Moth {Liparis moyiacha, Linne). The Cherry Fly {Rhagoletis cerasi, Linne). The Narcissus Fly {Merodon equestris, Fabricius). Black Knot {Plowrightia morhosa, Saccardo). Wart Disease or Black Scab of Potatos {Synchitrium- endohioticuvi, Percival). Tomato Leaf Spot (Septoria lycopersici, Spegazzini). Melon or Cucumber Canker {Mycosphaerella citrullina, Grossen- bacher). American Pear Blight {Micrococcus amylovorus, Burrell). Statistics of Interest to British Horticulturists. The following statistics, abstracted from the Government Trade and Navigation Eeturns for 1909, are in continuation of those appear- ing in the E.H.S. Journal, vol. xxxv. , pp. 60-62 : — TABLE I.— SHOWING THE IMPORTS OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES DURING- 1907-9. Quantities Values 1907 1908 1909 1907 1908 1909 Fruit : Apples, raw . . . (cwt.) Apricots and Peaches . „ Bananas, raw . . (bunches) Cherries, raw . . . (cwt.) Currants, raw . . . „ Gooseberries, raw . . „ Grapes, raw . . . „ Lemons . . . . „ Nuts : Alnionds . . . „ „ other nuts, used as fruit „ Oranges . . . . „ Pears, raw . . . . „ Plums, raw . . . . „ Strawberries, raw . . „ Unenumerated, raw . . „ 3,526,232 38,814 6,232,158 165,412 i09,l30 45,603 798,377 882,193 161,947 702,598 6,120,185 500,132 325,761 44,178 538,465 3,376,579 30,620 6,385,449 160,479 101,921 44,518 673,670 1,045,009 148,839 752,179 5,664,041 523,029 402,881 33,391 436,947 3,129,646 52,724 6,238,065 185,464 131,442 27,078 490,003 1,037,984 162,922 741,374 6,202,271 569,467 486,757 36,829 464,212 £ 2,231,327 78,583 1,771,095 199,489 142,245 25,994 769,307 421,599 660,604 749,538 2,454,569 478,611 345,720 54,186 339,462 £ 2,079,703 60,141 1,769,249 234,883 121,659 25,529 728,022 471,613 560,301 768,560 2,269,731 515,924 427,212 45,791 291,325 £ 2,007,911 83,443 1,752,190 210,679 151,552 13,496 508,111 475,967 710,325 789,798 2,522,491 504,423 474,749 47,877 306,031 Fruit, Dried : Currants Raisins 1,188,481 708,053 1,297,157 759,787 1,052,417 858,982 1,892,271 1,209,576 1,464,091 1,204,074 1,114,912 1,142,969 Vegetables, Raw : Onions .... (bushels) 8,645,048 7,896,109 7,470,775 1,036,231 993,669 1,213,518 f Prom Germany \ „ France . (cwt.) • 55 799,788 2,996,640 674,486 3,147,450 21,007 2,120,022 148,564 852,344 128,429 721,833 3,906 517,439 • 55 1,946,817 1,206,607 1,461,794 742,518 564,172 615,490 „ other V countries 2,506,121 2,010,780 680,043 628,119 552,782 271,416 Total . 8,249,366 7,039,323 4,282,866 2,371,545 1,967,216 1,408,251 Tomatos Unenumerated (cwt.) 1,135,499 365,230 1,160,283 871,209 1,161,308 1,020,805 365,230 955,985 371,209 954,400 402,739 Plowbrs, Freph value £ 233,641 229,802 244,855 156 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. BOOK BEVIEWS. "The Face of the Earth." By Edward Suess. Translated by Hertha B. 0. SoUas. VoL iv., 4to., viii. + 673 pp. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1909.) 25s. net. We have already noticed the first three volumes of this work, and the remarks then made apply equally to this volume (see Journal E.H.S., XXXV., p. 232). The whole book is one that every serious student of geology must read for himself, and it is unnecessary to say more than that the masterly survey of the earth's form and past history and a consideration of those of the moon are continued in the present volume. The printing and arrangement of the book are, as usual with publications of the Clarendon Press, of the best. " British Wild Flowers in their Natural Colour and Form." Text by Eev. Professor Henslow, with illustrations by Grace Latton. 8vo., xii. + 318 pp. (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1910.) 8s. This is not a flora like Johns' excellent book published by the same Society, but is designed to give interesting information with legendary lore and notes on the derivation of names of the commoner British plants. The letterpress is to some extent based upon Anne Pratt's widely-known " Wild Flowers," but parts of that have been omitted entirely, and much other matter has been included. We hardly feel that the publishers can be congratulated upon the illustrations, which are rather poor examples of colour-printing. In general form the plants depicted are usually accurate, but insufficient detail is shown to make them of value as botanical drawings. We cannot help but think the pictures have lost much in reproduction. The letterpress is arranged according to the natural method of classification, but on the plates we find the bulbous buttercup cheek by jowl with the bluebell, and buckwheat with sneezewort, and some even more j incongruous associatious. "Soils and Manures." By J. A. Murray, B.Sc. Svo., xiii. + 354 pp. (Constable, London, 1910.) 6s. net. \ This text-book of soils and manures contains little that is new either in matter or treatment, but it gives a good review of our knowledge of j soil chemistry and the use and value of manures, a fairly full account | of soil biology, and an informing chapter upon the physical properties | of soils. One could, however, wish that, as with the chemistry of soils, the author had endeavoured to correlate the physical character of soils with the requirements of the crops they bear. A considerable body of BOOK REVIEWS. 157 facts in this direction is already available, though a great deal remains to be done. The author recognizes the dangers of placing too great reliance upon the composition of the soil as revealed by chemical analysis as a direct guide to manuring, as well as the folly of relying upon the analysis of the plant; and the reader will find plans by which he may gain information regarding the mianurial requirements of the plant by means of trial plots. Altogether the author has produced an excellent book, which farmers, fruit-growers and market gardeners who have some knowledge of elementary chemistry will find valuable. "The Young People's Microscope Book." By Eev. S. N. Sedgwick, M.A. 8vo., 300 pp. (Culley, London, 1910.) 3s. 6^^. net. This book is intended to give young people plain directions as to the use of a cheap compound microscope, with methods of constructing apparatus at a merely nominal cost, and to direct their attention towards the most profitable places in which to search for interesting objects. The author is an enthusiast upon his subject, and the youthful enquirer would find in him a genial and safe guide to the mysteries of microscopy so far as a beginner with, a small instrument and plenty of inquisitive- ness may hope to know them. "Manual of Physical Geography." By F. V. Emerson, Ph.P). 8vo., xvii. + 291 pp. (Macmillan, New York, 1909.) 6.s. net. This is a school-book of physical geography, consisting mainly of a variety of exercises, and applying for the most part to conditions obtaining in the United States. The teacher desirous of furthering Nature-study will find herein some stimulating suggestions. "Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden." By H. 0. Long, B.Sc, and J. Percival, M.A., F.L.S. 8vo., xvih. + 451 pp. (Smith, Elder, London, 1910.) 65. net. There are many books dealing with fungus and animal pests of the farm and garden, but we have waited long for one On weeds, and now it has come we can have nothing but praise for it. Weeds are not an altogether unmixed curse to the gardener, for sometimes he is induced to hoe between crops to keep them down, and the crops naturally benefit greatly; and weeds are often useful in other ways, but some are master- ful and well adapted to hold their own against most of the garden's crops. In the present work, which is well and copiously illustrated and well printed on good paper, one may learn not only how to identify the weeds commonly met with, but how to check their progress and avoid their return. There are figures and descriptions of the weeds pecdiar to various habitats, and of the tools designed to keep them m cheok ; recipes for weed-killers ; a chapter on the principles of seed- testing; the opinions of authorities on the worst weeds of certain districts; lists of literature dealing with various aspects of the subject; 158 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. and an appendix detailing the legislation directed in various countries towards checking the introduction and spread of weeds. The author and his collaborator, the artist, and the publishers, have all done their respective parts well, and have produced a readable and instructive book. "The Principles of Soil Management." By T. L-. Lyon, Ph.D., and E. O. Pippin, B.S.A. 8vo., xxxiii. + 531 pp. (Macmillan, London, 1909.) 7s. 6d. net. Many works have appeared on the soil in recent years, but none, so far as we have seen, deal in such a thorough, though elementary, way with the question as this one. It is arranged in an excellent style, and its several parts deal with (1) the soil as a medium for root develop- ment (132 pages); (2) the soil as a reservoir for water (133 pages); (3) plant nutrients in the soil (121 pages) ; (4) organisms in the soil (44 pages) ; (5) soil air (33 pages) ; and (6) external factors of soil management (66 pages). The student — and every gardener must be a student all his life — will find much to instruct him and a great deal to help him in making the conditions for his crops more suitable if he will read and apply in a reasonable way the lessons this book contains. It is one that may be relied upon to provide a sound basis upon which he may build. Zambesia: a General Description of the Valley of the Zambesi River from its Delta to the River Aroangwa, with its History, Agri- culture, Flora, Fauna, and Ethnography." By R. C. F. Maugham, H.B.M. Consul for Portuguese East Africa. ¥/ith map and 42 illus- trations. 8vo., xiv. + 408 pp. (Murray, London, 1910.) 15s. net. Although many English people travel to British Nyasaland or Rhodesia every year, the actual valley of the Zambesi with which this volume is concerned is seldom visited by British travellers, and is by no means well known. Mr. Maugham's book will therefore be an exceedingly useful work of reference. The chapters dealing with the ancient history of Portuguese occupation and with the adventures of the first explorers in their search for the more oi" le^s legendary gold and silver mines of Monomatapa are full of interest, and give an excellent idea of the methods employed by the Pbftuguese at a period when they w^ere the I first sea power in the world. Other chapters in this volume describe the present methods of admini^tratiori, the Portuguese Chartered Companies of to-day, the system of Pi-azoeS and the characteristics of ! the British Indians, and other present-day settlers in Zambesia. Readers of this Journal will be specially interested iri the accounts of I the coco-nut palm and sugar plantations, of the apparent faihite' of the j cotton plant in Zambesia (through what Mr. Maugham describes as the i "greenfly pest," ' Malvacearum '), and of the showy CalpurniaS, j Crinums, Palms, " thorn-bearing abominations," the " loathly cow-itch bean mucuna," and other impressive plants. There are chapter's oil j BOOK REVIEWS. 169 the flora, reptiles, birds and insects, zoology, climate, and health, as well as three others dealing with the characteristics, superstitions, and folklore of the natives. Several native animal stories are given in full. There are also graphic descriptions of the scenery and rock gorges in the Zambesi and Barne, which are illustrated by exceedingly clear and artistic photographs. Moreover, the book is not only a valuable work of reference, but it is written in a lively and interesting way. But although Mr. Maugham's book leaves a very clear impression of Zambesia on the mind of the reader, it seems at least doubtful if the picture is not of a much too roseate character. One would hardly gather from this volume that the climate is thoroughly unhealthy for Europeans. The prospects of any successful cultivation are very much affected by this fact. Moreover, however greatly the methods of Portuguese government may have miproved during the last ten years, there is still an enormous difference in the administration of Portuguese and of British territories. Very few^ British writers seem to understand Portuguese, and the story of that extraordinary half-caste genius " Gouveia " is very significant. It reveals what inevitably happens when weakness prevails in the government of native possessions. As regards other points of less importance, it seems to be generally adoiitted that the Zambesi is becommg more shallow every year. Mr. Maugham's explanations are not very easy to follow. It seems rash to suggest that " Lake Nyasa may have sprung some terrific leak, and that ... an immense foaming torrent goes thundering seaward, and, for aught we know to the contrary, may be now delving out the bed of some unknown, unsuspected, and unuamed river." The gradual silting up of the river bed, or else perhaps a diminution in the rainfall over the catchment area of the Zambesi, would appear- at first sight to be more plausible explanation than any of those suggested by Mr. Maugham. The larvae of one of the " ticks," Ceratopogon, are, on p. 221, said to be " laid in star-shaped clusters of Algae containing from 100 to 150 eggs." Insects' eggs are, of course, often found entangled in Algae, which, we suppose, is what Mr. Maugham means. Lists of plants collected by the author and of birds and mammals are given at the ends of the chapters, but are without localities. The author does not agree with Mr. Selous as to the disappearance of the tsetse fly when buffalo and other big game have left a district, which is a point of great importance to the future of Portuguese East Africa. A very old friend appears again in the following: " A friend of mine in South Africa . . . informed me that the mamba " (snake) spat out the poison in a long jet, as though it had issued from a fine yet powerful syringe." > "The Senior Botany." By F. Cavers, D.Sc, F.L.S. bvo., 464 pp. (University Tutorial Series, London, 1910.) 4s. 6d. This strikes us as being the best of the many elementary books on botany we have seen. It deals very thoroughly with each subject, and 160 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. provides tlie student with numerous questions at the end of the chapters, and also with others, suggesting thought and investigation incidentally in the text. It is well illustrated throughout, and the final chapter on Ecology is a distinct and valuable feature; but the fact that " Adapta- tion by response " is the real " cause " of variations might be more strongly emphasized ; there Mr. McCallum proved experimentally that the dissected type of submerged leaf in Proserpinaca was the result of supersaturation by water. A few other suggestions might be made. No mention appears to occur of transpiration being especially due to red and violet rays of the spectrum (p. 122). Spinescent processes are shown by Ecology to be the direct result of drought, not formed specially as a protection against brov/sing animals (p. 185). Camels live on the thorny bushes of desert countries. Has it ever been proved that pollen of anemo- philous plants is lighter than that of others? (p. 246). The figure of the corymb is inexact. If the bracts are opposite, each pedicel would be a secondary peduncle and bear a pair of pedicels, as in Caryophyllaceae (p. 230). The leaves of Ranunculus Ficaria ai'e not strictly opposite, but alternate on opposite sides of the axis. This is suggested to be a result of the single cotyledon (not mentioned). Self-pollination (following Darwin's error) is described (p. 217) as | inferior in its effects to cross-pollination; but examples on pp. 214, 237, 238 prove the contrary. The diagram of a root-tip (p. 160) would apply to a Monocotyledon, in which the root-cap has its origin inde- pendent of the initial cells of the root, not of a Dicotyledon, rightly described in the text. Speaking generally, the book is an admirable one, especially for encouraging close, accurate, and abundant observation on the part of j the student. . j "Charles Darwin and the Origin of Species; Addresses, &c., in ' America and England." By E. B. Poulton, D.Sc, M.A., F.E.S., &c. 8vo., 302 pp. (Longmans, London, 1909.) 7s. 6d. net. j The book contains the following: — Fifty Years of Darwinism; The j Personality of Darwin; The Darwin Centenary at Oxford; Darwin and | the University of Cambridge ; Colour and Mimicry ; Letters from | Darwin to Eoland Trimen; and four appendices. The first address | treats of the following, amongst other matters: — Erasmus Darwin and j Lamarck, The Influence of Lyell, Foreshadowings of Natural Selection, | The Publication of the Darwin- Wallace Essay, Echoes of the Storm, | Attacks of Owen and St. G. Mivart, Lamarck's Hypothesis and the | Hereditary Transmission of Acquired Characters, &c. | Prof. Poulton called Darwin's and Wallace's communications a I " joint essay," but in the " Journal of the Linnean Society " they are | perfectly distinct. There were three papers — (1) " Extract from an Unpublished Work on Species by C. Darwin"; (2) "Abstract of ^ Letter from C. Darwin "; and (3) " On the Tendency of Varieties to IBOOK REVIEWS. 161 depart indefinitely from the Original Type," by Wallace. It is interest- ing to note that while Darwin collected his data chiefly from " Animals and Plants under Domestication," Wallace says: — "We see, then, that no inferences as to varieties in a state of nature can be deduced from the observation of those occurring among domestic animals." Speaking of Dr. F. Darwin's belief in " the transmission of acquired characters as being implied by the persistence for unnum- bered generations of the successive developmental stages through which the individual advances towards maturity," the author observes that " Weismann's hypothesis of the continuity of the germ-plasm supplies a sufficient mechanism." Assumi7ig that germ-plasm exists, the ' ' persistence ' ' may be accounted for ; but is it not best to look for facts ? These are perhaps more easily seen in plants than animals ; and if it be true in the former, it is a strong inference that it is also in animals. The ' Virginian Creeper ' never makes adhesive pads before contact with a wall. A mechanical irritation i& suffi- cient to invite the response. In the Japanese species the pads are partially formed before contact — i.e. they are not only " acquired " but " hereditary." Prof. Poulton observes: — " It is well known that plants have the power of adjusting themselves to their individual environment . . . the hereditary transmission of the results of its exer- cise is especially dangerous." Why so? If a plant has for generations adapted itself to a particular environment but cannot readapt itself to another, it will die; but this is 7iot the usual result. The water crowfoot is adapted to live submerged ; but it produces stronger plants if the seed be sown on land. Yet it retains the " acquired " dissected fohage. This example seems to refute Prof. Poulton 's assertion — If a species possessing the power of individual adaptation ultimately came to live permanently in one set of conditions [e.g. as a submerged plant] , and thus ceased to need it, the pov/er itself, no longer sustained by selection [i.e., assumed to be so], would sooner or later be lost. [This is an unproven assumption.] The fleshy character of the samphire is regarded as an " acquired " character, because it is proved experimentally to be due to salt. Yet when grown inland it becomes a thin-leaved plant. As Dr. F. Darwin says, corroborating his father,''' " the permanent condition is a final result of the hereditary trans- mission [of fluctuating or individual differences] by the same response through a large number of generations." Prof. Poulton refers to the neglect of adaptation as due to Huxley, who was " not a naturalist, far less a student of living nature." But adaptations in plant life have been almost exhaustively studied since Darwin led the way. He was the first and greatest of our ecologists. Prof. Poulton elsewhere says : — " This Lamarckian conclusion, that the adaptive response has been caused and not merely evoked by environmental stimuh is well criticized by de Vries." We do not see the difference between " caused " and " evoked." The " stimulus " * A71. and PI. under Dom. ii. 271. VOL. XXXVI. M 162 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. is drought in the desert, to which de Vries refers. The " response " is " adaptations," e.g. thick cuticle, fleshiness, spinescence, &c. Stabihty may or may not remain. ZiUa myagroides, a spiny bush ni the desert, becomes a large-leaved spineless plant in cultivation. But African fleshy Euphorbias remain so, wherever they 'be grown, contrary to the statement that ' ' nothing in the way of stability has resulted from the action of the dry soil." * An essay on ''The Personality of Darwin," dealing with the enormous amount of work done under the most distressing ill-health gives an insight into his patient endurance and determination, and how essential work was to him. He showed " how clearly he recognized that the love of knowledge for its own sake was the one essential qualification of a scientific man." Other essays deal with Darwin's views in connexion with colour and mimicry, of which Prof. Poulton is so excellent an exponent. Altogether the work is a most important one ; and the writer has put together a large amount of matter in which Darwin is always the central and attractive figure. " The Naturalist on the River Amazons : a Record of Adventures, tiabits of Animals, Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life, and Aspects of Nature under the Equator, during Eleven Years of Travel." By Henry Walter Bates, F.R.S. 8vo., x. + 394 pp. ; with 39 illustrations. (Murray, London, 1910.) Is. net. Although Bates landed at Paraguay in 1848, and although the original volume was published so long ago as 1863, this classic story of a naturalist's adventures is still most interesting, and is even an essential part of a scientist's education. The catholic nature of his interest in the strange and new country, of which he was one of the earliest scientific pioneers, is perhaps one of the reasons for the extraordinary charm of this volume. In modern books of travel one finds that naturalists have visited some of the most out-of-the-way parts in the world simply to study the Jungermanniaceae or the Buprestidae. Bates was enthusiastic about everything, keenly interested in Indians, beasts, birds, insects, and plants of every sort and kind. What could better this description of a common variety of tropical vegetation? — " There was not much green underwood except in places where bamboos grew ; these formed impenetrable thickets of plumy foliage and thorny, jointed stems, which always compelled us to make a circuit to avoid them. The earth itself was encumbered with rotting fruits, gigantic beanpods, leaves, limbs and trunks of trees; fixing the impression of its being the cemetery as well as the birth- place of the great world of vegetation overhead. Some of the trees were of prodigious height. We passed many specimens of the Moratinga, whose cylindrical trunks, I dare not say how many feet in circum- * " The Centenary of Darwin," Quarterly JR.cview, July 1909. p. 36, BOOK REVIEWS. 163 ference, towered up and were lost amidst the crowns of the lower trees, their lower branches in some cases being hidden from our view." Then he describes the poisonous tree, Sapium sp., whose milky sap is said to cause incurable sores." Then there are fascinating descriptions of the habits of insects, as, for instance, those of the sand wasps and mason bees. Even to-day- it would be very difficult to discover a better introduction to these interesting creatures than he gives us. One of them excavates its mine on a " sandbank recently laid bare in the middle of the river. ' ' It has to travel half a mile in order to catch the unfortunate fly with which it provisions its cell. Yet it returns " without hesitation straight for the closed mouth of the mine. " This, as he explains, must be due to "a mental process in each individual, differing from the same in man only by its unerring uncertainty." Bates was, of course, most interested in birds, monkeys, alligators, tortoises, and insects. His descriptions of the formidable ants which seem to dominate the valley of the Amazons, and hold their own even against mankind, are amongst the most valuable of existing observa- tions. " The main column, from four to six deep, moves forward in a given direction, clearing the ground of all animal matter, dead or alive, and throwing off here and there a thinner column to forage. ... If some very rich place be encountered anywhere near the line of march — for example, a mass of rotten wood abounding in insect larv£e, a delay takes place and a very strong force of ants is concentrated upon it. The excited creatures search every cranny, and tear in pieces all the large grubs they drag to light." The Indians are described exactly as he saw them, and his descrip- tion of their dances, arrows poisoned with Urari (strychnine), and characteristics sixty years ago are valuable anthropological documents. He describes also the different types of vegetation in the Amazons : the Ygapos or inundation forest, with its trees whose trunks are " coated with dried shme " and its " dense bushes of a hard, cutting grass," the campos " carpeted with slender, hairy grasses, unfit for pasture, growing to a uniform height of about a foot," and " islands of jungle " or scattered trees, as well as the ordinary forest which prevails over an enorm.ous area of the valley. It will be seen that this classical work is one which should be in- cluded in every naturahst's library, and it is fortunate that it should now be published at a price which brings it within the reach of everyone. Those who are specially interested in the author will find a short account of his hfe in the Fortnightly Review, December 1892, by Grant Allen ; there is also the memoir by Edward Glodd in the 1893 edition of this work. "A Book about Sweet Peas." By Walter P. Wright. 8vo., 168 pp. (Headley, London, 1909.) 2.. W. Bindweed, The Eradication of. By H. E. Cox {V.S.A. Dep. Agr., Fanners' Bull. 368, Aug. 1909; plates). — This name has been applied to several species of the Convolvulus family, which are very aggressive weeds, doing much harm over a wide area to cultivated crops and occasionally in orchards. The best method of dealing with it is to keep down the top growth and thus starve out the under- ground parts, and this is best done in three ways — by clean cultivation, by lucerne> growing, and by hog pasturing. Other methods have been tried, but so far not with much success. Figures are given of types of weed-cutters which have been found useful in exterminating bindweed in America.— M. L. H. Biological Studies on Three Species of Aphididae. By J. J. Davis {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. ofEntom., Tech. Bull. 12, part 8; Feb. 1909). — Studies of the various stages, times of appearance, and so on, of three species of Aphis which attack maize and sorghum are given at length, together with a bibliography of each species. — F. J. C. Birch Stem, Sap-pressure in the {Bot. Gaz. vol. xlvhi. December 1909, pp. 442-458; with 5 figs.). — Messrs. H. E. Merwin and Howard Lyon found that the sap-pressure in both birches and maples increases rapidly in amount from the morning until midday, or shortly afterwards; it then slowly declines until sunset, after which a gradual rise is maintained during the night. The sap-pressure is, however, extremely sensitive to sunshine; it drops suddenly if a cloud obscures the sun, and rises again in sunlight. The maple is not nearly so sensitive. The highest pressures observed were 91 cm. (1'2 atmosphere) in a birch 7' 5 cm. diameter, and in another 35 cm. diameter and about 20 m. high 204 cm., corresponding to 2*68 atmo- spheres. Such a pressure would support a column of water 7"8 m. higher than the tree. These high pressures occur when the buds are beginning to unfold, and no pressure is found in spring till the ground has thawed considerably. By a series of ingenious experiments and calculations the authors found that the evaporation from one tree amounted to about 480 ccm. a day; that the duct space in a white birch, 11 cm. in diameter, amounted to about 6,800 ccm., and that about 1*3 to '7 per cent, of this internal duct space was occupied by gas bubbles. The authors calculated also the amount of expansion of the wood due to a rise in temperature, and find that this expansion produces the rise in pressure from sunrise to noon, as well as the oscillations noticed in sunshine and cloud alluded to above. The ratio of expansion Q 2 228 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. from 6° to 32° 0. of cell-wall to the expansion of water was found to be 2-2.— G. F. S.-E. Bordeaux Mixture made with Lime-water. By D. McAlpine (Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., November 1909, p. 702). — A form of Bordeaux may be used in which lime-water takes the place of the milk of lime. Less bluestone is necessary, and the solution is equally efficacious. The formula is : Bluestone . . . . . 3 lb. 2 oz. Lime-water ..... 42| gallons. Water to make up to . . . .50 gallons. The lime-water may be prepared by placing the quicklime (2| lb.) in a gunny bag (or any bag of loose texture will do) and suspending it in the proper quantity of water in the morning, and next morning it will be ready for use. It may be run off into the bluestone solution, and after thorough mixing it is ready for spraying. — G. H. TI. Breeding-, Application of Some of the Principles of Heredity to Plant. By W. J. Spillman (U.S.A. Dept. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. 165, 67 pp.). — The author first gives a description of Mendelian phenomena, referring to the work of English experimenters, and to much of the recent literature upon this subject. Other section headings are Latency, Eeciprocal Crosses, Mutations, etc. The whole constitutes a convenient r^sum& of the work of recent years in experimental eugenics and its bearing upon the work of practical breeding. E. A. Bd. Breeding" : The Superiority of Line Breeding- over Narrow. By O. F. Cook (U.S.A. Dept. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. 146, pp. 1-40). — '* Line " breeding is the term applied when strains are descended from single individuals propagated without interbreeding with other lines of descent. " Narrow " breeding is applied to the propagation of small numbers of closely similar individuals. A closely detailed discussion leads to the following conclusions: — j " Line " breeding is best suited for the raising of a product to a ' high degree of uniformity and is termed conservative." " Narrow " breeding is the condition in which degeneration most promptly takes place, and is "destructive." The practical importance of uniformity must not lead tne breeder to overlook the fact that it is attained at the price of degeneration. It is recognized, however, that no single system can be applied to the whole field of experimental breeding, owing to diversity of conditions, and especially to variations in protoplasmic longevity. — E. A. Bd. Bromeliaceae, Morphologrical Changes in Roots of, Due to Attack of Heterodera. By James Waterston (Trans. Roy. Bat. Sci. Ediv. vol. xxiv. part i. pp. 26 to 34 ; 3 plates). — An account of the NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 229 influence exerted by the parasitism of nematode worms in roots of certain of the Bromehaceae. Eeference is made to the work of Vuillemin and Legrain, who state that at El Oued (a Saharan oasis) the presence of Heterodera is necessary for the cultivation of beetroot in that climate, and that the relation must be regarded " comme une veritable symbiose." The main part of the paper is occupied with a description of the remarkable morphological changes induced by the presence of Heterodera in the roots of certain Bromeliads, and is an important contribution to the literature of parasitism. — E. A. Bd. BPOOm-Pape. By T. W. Kirk, F.L.S., and A. H. Cockayne (Dep. Agr. N.Z., Bull. 21; Feb. 1909; 4 figs.).— The illustrations show the various stages of development in the broom-rapes, which belong to the genus Orohanche, and all are true parasites, never pro- ducing foliage-leaves or chlorophyll, but obtaining all their nourishment from the host plant. The seeds of tlie broom-rape are almost the smallest that are produced by any flowering plant ; they are very long- lived, and may remain dormant for as long as ten years. The authors suggest several methods of prevention and extermina- tion, and recommend that in paddocks where the parasite is troublesome only those plants should be grown which are known to be free from attack. A list of host-plants is appended. — V. G. J. BuPSeraceae. By A. Guillaumin {Ann. Sc. Nat. x. Nos. 4, 5, 6, pp. 202-301; 62 figs.). — This family includes Crepidospermum, Pro- tium, Tetragastris, Trattinickia, Canarium, Canariellum, Pachylohus, Dacryodes, Santiria, Scutinanthe, Aucoumea, Triomma, Boswellia, Bursera, Commiphora, Garuga, Canariastrum. The leaves, stem, fruit, embryo, and germination are described of all but the last. The two characteristics of the family are the presence of secretory canals in the primary liber formed in the procambium, and the existence of two ovules in the cell of the ovary. The Burseraceae are closely related to the Eutaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, and Simarubiaceae. S. E. W. Cabbagre GPOWingr. By E. E. Bennett {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Colorado, Bull. 143, March 1909). — As land in Colorado has been irrigated, the character of the crops grown has changed, and cabbages, potatos, and onions have taken the place of wheat, oats, and hay. The best situation for cabbages is an altitude of between 6,000 and 9,000 feet. Irrigation is necessary when setting out the young cabbage plants in the field, and the ditches are only filled in after two or three appHcations of water have firmly sealed the plants in. The flea-beetle IS the most serious insect pest, attacking the seedHngs, which are therefore grown in covered frames. The alkaline character of the soil may have something to do with the very small amount of club-root, even though cabbages are grown continuously on the same soil — in one case fourteen years in succession.— C. H. L. 230 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Cabbage, The Decay .of, in Storag-e : its Cause and Ppeven- tion. By L. L. Barter {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PL Ind., Circ. 39; Oct. 1909). — The loss from decay of cabbage in winter storage has increased to such an extent in some districts in the past few years as frequently to make the growing of the crop an almost unprofitable industry. Of the thousands of tons stored every fall to supply the markets in winter from 10 to 50 per cent, is lost annually from decay. Soft rot and leaf-blight are found to be the immediate cause of the trouble. The organisms that promote these decays gain access to the tissues of the leaves through wounds made by careless handling, and also by following up the fibro-vascular bundles which have been previously killed by black-rot iri the field. The author advises that diseased or badly-bruised cabbage should not be stored, and attention should be paid to the ventilation of storage- houses, which should be kept as dry as possible. If a house has been previously used for storage purposes, and there has been any evidence of decay, spraying the interior with about half 1 per cent, solution of copper sulphate or the application of whitewash will destroy the spores of many fungi and bacteria. The application of either should be made long enough before the house is used for storage to permit the wood to dry thoroughly. — V. G. J. Calcium v. Magnesium and Sodium {Bot. Gaz. vol. xhx. pp. 41-50, January 1910; with 2 figs.). — Mr. Ghas. B. Lipman finds that there is no antagonism between either magnesium or sodium and ' calcium. Any combination of the first and last is more toxic than MgOL for B. suhtilis. Similarly, any combination of sodium and calcium is more poisonous for this bacillus than NaCl alone. In this respect B. suhtilis differs from all other plants hitherto studied. G. F. S.-E. Camassia Leichtlini. By W. Fitzherbert {Garden, Sept. 11, 1909, p. 4:4:6 and fig.)- — This is particularly recommended for the wild garden. Two varieties are mentioned. The writer also describes C. esculenta, G. Cussickii, G. Fraseri, G. montana, and C. Brownii; he considers they should be planted in colonies. They do not produce many offsets, but may be raised by the thousand from seed, flowering in their fourth or fifth year. — H. R. B. Cambium Starvation in Trees. By K. Eubner {Nat. Zeit. Land-Forst. viii. pp. 212-262; April 1910). — Many variations in i external form of trees may be traced to low activity of the cambium layer which forms new wood and inner bark. A number of cases have been investigated by the author, and he has succeeded in grouping them into series. The ribbing of the stem so conspicuous in trees like ^ Hornbeam and Yew is traced to poor growth of parts of tha cambium, while neighbouring parts grow vigorously; the year-ring is thus un- equally developed. In other cases ribbing may be due to excessive bark formation. When the growth of the whole cambium ring is j NOTES AND ABSTEACTS. 231 retarded, as in the case of suppressed trees in a wood, or trees stripped of their fohage by insects or frost, then there results a year-ring which is uniformly thin and starved. Other cases of cambium starvation may result from throttling of the stem — e.g. by wire fastened round it, or by ringing due to animals. . The paper is an important contribution to the physiology of timber. — W. G. S. Campanula Beauverdiana. By 0. H. Wright {Bot. Mag. tab. 8299). Nat. ord. Campanulaceae ; tribe Camipanuleae. Transcaucasia and Northern Persia. Herb, glabrous. Leaves oblong-ovate, 2J inches long. Flowers solitary or few. Corolla blue, wide campanulate. G.H. Catalpa Midg'e {Cecidomyia catalpae, Comstock). By H. A. Gossard {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Ohio, Bull. 197; October 1908; 9 figs.).— The midge attacks the leaves and seed pods, but the most conspicuous form of injury is that done to the terminal buds of two- and three-year- old trees in the nursery beds. Usually two or three inches of the tender growing tips wither and turn brown, ultimately turning black and shrunken. "When opened they are found to contain several small, yelbw, footless maggots. The eggs are apparently deposited in the stem at the base of the petiole, or in the petiole base itself, and the stem begins to die at this point. In one small block of two-year-old catalpas about 25 per cent, of the trees had been injured. In nearly every case the lateral buds, at the last joint below the point of injury, had attempted to produce a leader, which resulted in a crooked, forked stem. The illustrations show the injured buds, injury to seed-pods, spots on the leaves, and the adult female midge with eggs and larvse. Among the remedies an application of kainit is recommended to destroy the hibernating larvse and stimulate the trees. — V. G. J. Celery Growing- in Colorado. By L. J. Eeid {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Colorado, Bull. 144, March 1909). — Celery is chiefly grown in the river-bottom lands. The farms are small, and heavy manuring takes the place of regular crop rotation, with careful irrigation. Two varieties are grown — Golden self -blanching and Giant Pascal. Blanching is done by means of boards (expensive), earthing up, and also with paper wrappings, finished off by earthing in trenches. The greatest draw- back in celery -growing is a tendency in the maturing plants to go to seed. It is supposed to be caused by " frosting " when the plant is young, or a check in the way of drought, or poor quality in the plants set out.— C. H. L. Centipede, The Common British. By W. Wesche, F.E.M.S. {Knowledge, November, 1909, pp. 419-420; 9 figs.).— This famiHar animal, which is apparently sensitive to light, although without eyes, is described in detail, and its place in the animal kingdom pointed out. Eeference is made to the alleged poison sac and appurtenances, 232 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. comparison being made with some of the exotic centipedes which are poisonous to man. Our British species 'is harmless to man, and is generally regarded as a useful ally of the horticulturist. — W. A. V. Cereus nudiflorus. By J. N. Bose {Contr. jr. U.S.A. Herh. xii. (1909); pt. 9; pp. 397-398; 3 plates).— This cactus, which forms a tree 22 feet m height, has been rediscovered in Cuba. The species was referred by Schumann to C. lepidotus, and the name nudiflorus (of Engelmann) does not appear in Index Kewensis. — F. J. C. Chenopodium amaranticolor {Jour. Soc. Nat. Hort. Fr., Sept. 1909, p. 517). — M. Bois has introduced this plant, which is recom- mended as a useful, very fast-growing vegetable, to take the place of summer spinach. It does not flower early enough, however, to set seed in the climate of Paris.— M. L. H. Chermes. By 0. Niisslin {Nat. Zeit. Land-Forst. viii. pp. 65-105; Feb. 1910). — Students of this group of insects will find this a useful paper summarizing recent progress, which has been rapid. The author is a well-known authority on the group, especially on the Spruce Chermes, and he gives an excellent summary of the systematic arrangement as now known. Life-histories of the better-known forms are also given, and there is an analytical table for determination of the more important species, with numerous figures. — W . G. S. Chestnut-bark Disease, Present Status of the. By H. Metcalf and J. F. Collins {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. 141, pt. V. Aug. 1909). — Caused by the fungus Diaporthe parasitica, the chestnut-bark disease has of late done a considerable amount of damage to both old and. young trees in and around the city of New York. Methods of coping with the disease and some illustrations of affected trees are given. — A. D. W. Christmas Rose, Transplanting" the. By E. H. Jenkins {Garden, Sept. 11, 1909, p. 445). — This should be done in September, transplanting in spring being a " delusion and a snare." The Christ- mas rose produces two sets of roots each year — the main or basal roots in the early autumn, and lateral or fibrous roots in the spring with the coming of the new leafage. It is important to procure the prin- cipal set of roots if the secondary are to exist at all or exercise their proper functions. The main roots are brittle, and, if mutilated, often j decay to the base of the plant. By the destruction of these main roots | in spring planting a debilitated condition is set up. The plants should ( never be transplanted bodily in large specimens. The best way to divide a clump is to lay it on its side and insert two small hand forks, back to back; then divide the clump by wrenching them outwards in opposite directions. Plants with two or three crowns are the best for planting, and division to nearly single crowns every two or three years has been found successful. — H. R. D. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 233 Chrysanthemums, Hairy. By Viand Bmane {Rev. Hort. Dec. 16, 1909, pp. 565-567; 4 illus.).— The illustrations show four distinct varieties in which the hairy or bristly superficial growths in the petals characteristic of a section exhibited in 1889, of which * Mrs. Alpheus Hardy ' formed the initial type, are very manifest, especially in ' Professeur Desire Bois,' an incurved variety, orange red. * Professeur Noel Bernard ' is a very dwarf variety of the same sec- tion, very double flower, petal backs rose-silvered and bristly, upper surface red. ' Barbe blanche, ' also dwarf, white, light yellow in centre, passing into white as developed. ' Perruque blonde, ' petals wide, long, and much curved, buff and ochry red. Very curious. — C. T. D. Clematis mandschuriea. By F. Morel {Rev. Hort. Sept. 16, 1909, pp. 422-423; 1 illus.).— The illustration from a photograph represents a very handsome and floriferous bush which is densely covered with pure white flowers in May and June, and if not allowed to seed will flower again in August and September. Is not a cHmber. Flowers delicately perfumed. — C. T. D. Codling" Moth. By J. E. Buck {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Virginia, Bidl. 181, March 1909 ; 9 figs.).— Data collected in 1908 showed about 43 per cent, of the apple crop of Virginia to be affected by codling worms. Experiments conducted in the same State and year resulted in 85 to 98 per cent, of worm-free apples from the trees dealt with. The life-history of the insect is given as observed there, showing the first brood of moths to emerge throughout May and a second brood during July and August, and it is estimated that 70 per cent, of the first-brood larvae enter the apples at the calyx, and the majority of the second-brood larvse at the side of the fruit. As the temperature conditions seem to govern both the opening of the blossom and the appearance of the first moths, it is recommended that the first spraying should be done within a week after the petals fall, and a second two to three weeks later. For the second brood it is recommended to spray nine weeks after the petals fall. Arsenate of lead and Paris green were used in the experiments, and the former proved the more efficient. — A. P. Coelogyne Mooreana. By E. A. Eolfe {Bot. Mag. tab. 8297). Nat. ord. Orchidaceae ; tribe Epidendreae. Annam. Herb, pseudo- bulbs clustered. Leaves 10-20 in. long. Scapes erect, 12-16 in. long. Flowers white, lip with golden blotch, 3 in. across. — G. H. Coffee Tree {Gymnocladus dioicus) {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Forest Service, Giro. 91, April 1907). — The coffee tree {Gymnocladus dioicus) in an economic sense is evidently of great value for the quality of the timber it produces, which is used to a limited extent for cabinet work and perhaps more largely in fencing, being durable when brought in contact with the soil.— A. B. W. 234 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, Coniferae at Baden-Baden. By E. Arens (Die Gart. No. 2, p. 14 ; January 8, 1910). — In the much colder winter chmate of Germany there are very few of even the most common evergreen trees or shrubs that survive the rigour of winter. There are, however, a few spots where the protecting hills and sometimes also the nearness of the lakes mitigate the severity of the season, and some plants having the benefit of a little varying warm summer for well ripening the wood, and the longer retarding though not very cold winter preventing early growth, do very well. Cunninghamia chinensis, a splendid specimen, almost fault- less, of 11 metres height, and a spread of branches of 10 metres. The circumference of stem one metre from the ground is 1'90 metre. Cedrus atlantica glauca, Cryptomeria japonica, Picea pungens glauca, and several others, which can be grown only in other parts of Germany under cover. — G. R. Cool Storagfe of Fruit. By W. French {Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., September 1909, pp. 589-592). — After describing varieties, keeping qualities, and temperatures, it gives the following as the length of time fruit can be stored : Peaches — one to two months at 320 to 34° F. Plums— Eight to ten weeks at 32° F. Cherries- — ten to fourteen days at 32^ to 34^ F. Oranges— One to three months at 34° F. Lemons — four months at 38° F. Grapes— three months at 33° to 36° F. Strawberries — four weeks, if covered with cotton wool, at 32° F. Currants — four to six weeks at 32° to 34° F. Eed varieties keep better than black or white, and should be protected by paper covering. ! Tomatos (ripe) — one to two months at 42° F. — C. H. H. Copper-soda for Apple Scab. By J. Oromin (Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., September 1909, p. 588). — The best time to spray is when a few of the blossoms are opening and the bulk of the flower buds are showing with distinct stems. Copper-soda is probably as effective as Bordeaux { mixture under all circumstances. It certainly is so in districts where j the weather conditions are fairly dry at the blossoming period. Bordeaux | mixture, owing to the lime in it, adheres to the trees better than the other wash, and is preferred where heavy rains occur in spring. The difference in cost is that between the soda and the lime. Only positively fresh lime is serviceable, so that some waste usually ensues. The copper-soda is more easily mixed and applied, and is a much more pleasant mixture to use generally. The accepted proper mixture for | copper-soda wash is made thus: dissolve 6 lb. bluestone in 25 gallons water, in which it should be suspended (placed in a piece of hessian). In cold water it will dissolve in a few hours; if required quickly, it dissolves 'm a few minutes in boiling water. Dissolve 8 lb. of washing soda in the same manner in another vessel containnig 25 gallons water; when dissolved add evenly together into the spray barrel.— C. H. H. NOTES AND ABSTEACTS. 235 Coral Spot Fung-us {Gnrden, Oct. 2, 1909, p. 485).— This is the well-known fungus found on dead wood. When the spores first germinate they are incapable of attacking living tissue, and can only grow on dead wood ; but when once it has gained an entrance to dead wood the mycelium will spread to and kill adjacent living tissue. It is therefore well to keep the fungus in check, and not leave dead wood lying about where it may do harm. — H. R. D. Cornfield Ant, Lasius nig'er americanus, Habits and Be- haviour of. By S. A. Forbes (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Illinois, Bull. 131 ; Dec. 1908 ; 1 plate). — This ant, which is nearly related to a common British species, does harm in maize fields in two ways — directly in some seasons by hollowing out seeds, and so either killing them or reducing the amount of reserve food at the disposal of the young plants ; and indirectly by keeping aphides which prey on the roots of the plants. It is shown that a change of crop, from maize to some other upon which the aphides do not feed, is followed by a migration of the ants, provided weeds are kept dowm. Numerous notes on life-history, etc., are given. — F. J. G. Corn-root Aphis, Experiments with Repellents agrainst. By S. A. Forbes {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Illinois, Bull 130; Dec. 1908).— The experiments detailed were carried out in 1905 and 1906, and, while not conclusive, show the possibilities of using repellents with success. The only natural agency checking this pest, which is closely connected with the cornfield ant, is a long-continued soaking of the ground by frequent heavy rains, especially in the spring. A test was carried out with a large number of substances possibly useful for the purpose, to ascertain their infiuence upon the germination and subse- quent growth of the plants. Four were selected, and the seeds treated therewith before using— viz. oil of lemon, carboHc acid, formalin, and kerosene, and all in the order named insured a larger yield than the untreated seeds. The author considers, however, that much larger numbers of experiments are necessary. Eotation, thorough cultivation, and proper manuring, as well as the use of repellents, are the methods to be adopted in dealing with this pest. — F. J. G. Cotton, Eg-yptian, A Study of Diversity in. By 0. F. Cook, Argyle McLachlan, and Eowland M. Meade [U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PL Ind., Bull. 156; 6 plates). — The diversity shown in introduced Egyptian Cottons is divided into four classes: — (a) Owing to insect cross fertilization. (b) Owing to incomplete acclimatization. (c) Differences in physical environment. ^ {d) Differences existing in the same individual. A detailed description of the three varieties imported — viz. Janno- vitch, Mit Afifi, and Dale — is given, and it is evident that neither of these is a pure strain 236 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Some evidence is given of the changes attributed to incomplete acchmatization, but it is hardly of a conclusive nature; and the same may be said of the variations grouped under class c, of which even less evidence is offered. Cases are quoted of lack of uniformity in the individual plant, but the greater part of the paper deals with the characteristics of the various hybrids, and the impurity of the strains reported upon render it im- possible to draw any conclusion as to the effect of environment upon them.— A. Bd. Cotton, Local Adjustment of Varieties. By 0. F. Cook {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PL Ind., Bull. 159, 1909).— A lengthy and detailed account of variation induced by changing of locality in cotton plants. A distinction is drawn between merely local changes and acclimatiza- tion of foreign cottons. The general deterioration of cotton due to local changes is due to an increase of diversity in individual plants. The saving of seed from plants which have not been disturbed by the environmental change is advocated. The conclusion drawn from i the facts is that in testing new varieties in new districts time must \ be allowed for local adjustments before any conclusion can be reached as to suitability. This is a paper of close and detailed evidence, and its nature renders adequate abstracting difficult, if not impossible. — E. A. Bd. Cotton, Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Hybrids of. By 0. F. Cook {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. 147, pp. 24). — The author considers that heredity comprises two processes — j viz. transmission and expression of characters. Extra-parental " i characters are divided into three classes — suppressed, intensified, and j primitive. | Mechanical theories of heredity are dismissed, as " plants and | animals inherit from their parents and transmit to their descendants I large numbers of peculiarities which are not shown in their own j bodies." Details of two of the classes mentioned above are given. ' No. 1. Suppression of bractlets in a cross between two bracteated varieties. No. 2. Intensification of bracts in certain crosses. These changes are said to be most pronounced in the first genera- tion, and tend to disappear in later generations. This paper is of much interest, but the difficulty of sundering | changes due to environment from those due to hybridity is very appa- rent. No evidence is offered of the stability of the varieties used, and ; in view of the author's remark on local diversities in Bull. 159 of this j Bureau, this omission renders the evidence somewhat inconclusive, j E. A. Bd. Cucumber Beetle, The Striped {Diahrotica vittata Fab.).— By F. H. Chittenden, Sc.D. {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. Entom., Circ. 31; May 1909; 2 figs.). — A revised edition of a previous circular. The NOTES AND ABSTEACTS. 237 author gives minute details regarding the life-history, food plants, and methods of prevention and destruction. Among the latter he advises sifting road dust or ashes over the majority of the plants, and covering the remainder with an arsenical solution. The beetles will concentrate on the clean plants, where they will be killed by the poison. V. G. J. Cyclamens, The History of the. By Le Texnier {Eev. Hort., Sept. 1, 1909, pp. 408-411). — A very interesting account of the genus and the development under cultivation of the various species and varieties concerned. — C. T. D. Delphinium sulphureum ( = D. Zalil). By F. Eoll {Die Gart.; April 30, 1910, p. 209). — Although this is the only species of hardy herbaceous Delphinium with yellow flowers, and though of far greater elegance than the white or blue flowering D. formosum forms, it is rarely met with in gardens. It does best in a hght soil and warm sunny position. The only way to increase it is by seeds which are best sown as soon as ripe. The rootstock is tuberous, not unlike that of Aconitum. During a cold wet summer the flowers are of a rather pale yellow, but in warm dry weather they are of a uniform goFden yellow, quite as large as those of the best blue Delpliinium of our gardens, and of graceful habit. — G. R. Dewberry Growing*. By 0. B. Whipple (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Colorado, Bull. 136; Jan. 1909). — Some parts of Colorado, especially those with a summer temperature of 90^ and from 5,500 to 6,500 feet high, grow very good dewberries. In one plantation three-quarters of an acre yielded 345 crates, and a gross return of over $650. But over-production is possible on account of the speedy deterioration of fruit in marketing; it must be on the market within thirty-six hours after picking. The plants require to be covered during the winter (with soil), but, given protection and good cultivation and manure, the life of the dewberry plant is a long one. In shipping the crates of berries, ventilation seems more important than refrigeration. — C. H. L. DiOOn spinulOSUm [Bat. Gaz. vol. xlviii. December 1909, pp. 401- 413; with 7 figs.). — Professor Charles J. Chamberlain gives an excel- lent photograph and a fresh description of this rare Cycad, and also discusses the distribution, character of thie cones, and affinities of the three species of this genus. — G. F. S.-E. Dipelta ventricosa. By J. Hutchinson {Bot. Mag. tab. 8294). Nat. ord. Caprifoliaceae ; tribe Lonicereae. Western China. Shrub 7-18 feet high. Leaves ovate. Flowers axillary, pedicellate. Bracts 6, 2 very small, 4 large at base of ovary. Corolla 1^ inch long, red without, orange within. — G. H. Dipsaceae. By P. van Tieghem {Ann. Sc. Nat. vol. x. Nos. 1-3, pp. 149-200). — Comparison of the inflorescence, flowers, fruit, and seed shows a wide difference between the Valerianaceae and the Dipsaceae. 238 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. The Dipsaceae contains only five genera, viz. Dipsacus, Gephalaria, Knautia, Pterocephalus, and Scahiosa. Morina, formerly included in this family, should in all probability be a member of a new family embracing Moriaceae, Trilostegia, and Hoeckia, or form, together with Acanthocalyx, a new division. — S. E. W. Diseases of Cereals and Grasses (U.S.A. Exp. Stn.. Ohio, Bull. 203, April 1909; plates). — These investigations were under- taken in order to try to discover the cause of the shrivelling which has often been noted in wheat grains without the presence of attacks of rust severe enough to account for the phenomenon. Experiments were made with_the apparatus known as a physician's centrifuge, which was found to answer the purpose admirably of detaching disease spores from affected grain, and was the means of discovering the existence of a hitherto unrecognized Anthracnose disease which attacks rye, wheat, oats, and various grasses. The organism causing this disease has been provisionally given the name of Colletotrichum cereale, and its life-history was studied upon its natural hosts and in standard culture media in the laboratory, the similarity of colony, form and size of spores, colour and appearance of mycelium being apparent in all these growths. The spores of this disease are readily disseminated through seed- grain, as is shown by the results of centrifugal examinations made of the washings from suspected grain. Seed treatment with formalde- hyde drench will destroy the Anthracnose spores; and during the growing season formaldehyde, hot-water and corrosive-sublimate treatments, which, were being tried for smut, were found to check the Anthracnose disease also. Further investigation of this disease is, however, to be undertaken by the Department with the co-operation of private growers. This bulletin also contains information upon the wheat scab, Fusarium | roseum (Lk.), and gives the results of cultivation of the spores of its j probable perithecial form, Giherella Saubinelli (Mot.) Sacc. upon culture] media. The work done demonstrated that the scab fungus not onlyj survives in dead wheat kernels, but also in those capable of germina-j tion. Germinations of externally sterile kernels of wheat have been made in the Geneva germinator, in sterile tubes, and in soil in the greenhouse. All these tests proved that the scab fungus (Fusarium), under such conditions, was an aggressive seedling parasite attacking and killing the young wheat plants when less than a month old. Clover, oats, barley, rye, and spelt are also affected by an apparently identical fungus. Some plots of wheat at the station were infected w^ith washings of wheat, oats, barley, rye, the grain of which had showed an abundance of scab conidia under centrifugal micro- examination, and it appeared that, no matter which of these was the source of the conidia, infection of the wheat readily took place. On the practical side, it is pointed out that stinking smut, scab diseases, and Anthracnose have all been found present in seed-grain, and there- NOTES AND ABSTKACTS. 239 fore seed treatment by means of formalin is m'ged, while the feasibility of removing scab-infested kernels by thorough cleaning of the seed-grain in the fanning mill is shown by the investigations made as to the relative weight of healthy and infected kernels. — M. L. H. Diseases, Plant, in Florida. By H. S. Fawcett (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Florida, Rcpt. 1908). — Bacterial rot of cabbage (Pseudomonas campestris) and of lettuce (causing browning of the leaf and subse- quently rotting) are fully described, and a few others incidentally re- ferred to. In the case of the former, wliich is sometimes . prevalent in England, it is recommended that fresh soil should be used for seed beds; the seeds should be wxtted with a solution of 1 part of corrosive sublimate to 1,000 of water for 15 minutes; fresh ground should be chosen for planting; the use of stable manure should be avoided; in- fected plants should be burnt ; tools should be properly cleansed and disinfected after digging in infected soils. — F. J. C. Distribution of Chlorogenie Acid in Nature. By K. Gorter [Ann. Jard. Bot. Buit. viii. series ii. pp. 69-84). — Ohlorogenic acid is decomposed by caustic alkalis into caffeic and quinic acids, C32H38O19+ H20 = 209H804 + 2O7H12O6. Hydrochloric acid decomposes chlorogenic acid, with evolution of carbonic acid and the formation of a product soluble in ether. The etherial extract gives a characteristic violet solution when shaken up with a dilute solution of ferric chloride. By means of this reaction, the presence of chlorogenic acid has been detected in 98 of the 230 species examined. It could not be detected in any of the Leguminosae and Meliaceae.- — S. E. W. Drosera ornata. By H. P. [Garden, Nov. 27, p. 576 and fig.). — The- Australian sundew i& worthy of note as an ornamental flowering plant. It is from 6 to 8 inches high, and the flowers tall. When fully exposed to- the sun, the leaves and translucent drops often become reddish. It is readily propagated by root cuttings. — H. R. D. Dry Farming' Investigations in Montana. By Alfred Atkin- son land J. B. Nelson (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Montana, Bull. 74, Dec. 1908). — The conclusions reached in this bulletin are that dry farming may be carried on with profit on much of the great level area of the State which will never be irrigated. Autumn-sown wheat and rye answer better than spring-sown, and the crops should be grown in alter^ nate years with a well-cultivated summer fallow, which will keep down weeds and promote a mulch surface for retention of moisture. C. H. L, Echeveria. By J. N. Bose (Contr. fr. U.S.A. Nat. Herb xii. (1909); pt. 9; p. 395; figs.).- — Two new species from Guatemala, E. guatemalensis and E. Maxonii, are described and figured. — F. J. C. Echeveria earnicolor Baker. By J. N. Eose (Contr. fr. U.S.A. ^at. Herb. xii. (1909); pt. 9; p. 393; fig.).— This plant was described 240 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. and figured in Saunder's Refugium Botanicum. It has now been redis- 'I covered in Mexico by Dr. Purpus, and may prove useful in the garden. It is near E. lurida, but more attractive. — F. J. C. Education, Agrricultural, Progress in 1907. By D. J. Crosby {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Off. Exp. Stn., Ann. Rept. 1907; pp. 237-306; figs.). — Gives a brief account of the courses proved in different parts of ; the world for agricultural and horticultural education. — F. J. C. E3lworm in Leaves of Greenhouse Plants {Garden, Sept. 25, 1909, p. 470). — The occurrence of eelworm in leaves of begonia, especially ' Gloire de Lorraine, ' and fern leaves is noticed. The injury ; is seen as brown marks on the under surface, or showing through j the leaf. In the begonia the brown spots have a curious semi-trans- parent appearance and are frequently put down to rust. Mites are sometimes the cause of injury, but very often the microscope reveals instead innumerable eelworms {Aphelenchus olesistus). It gains entrance to the plant through the roots, making its way up the stem j to the leaves Take precautions to see that the soil is free from the pest and propagate only from healthy plants. — H. R. D. Elaeag-naceae, Monog-raph of. Second Part. By M. Ser- vettaz {Beih. 3, Bot. Centralbl. Band 25, Abt. 2, Heft ii. Oct. 9, 1909, pp. 129-420; 140 figs, and bibliography). — In this volume are described the biology, comparative anatomy, and embryology of the order. (The First Part contains a systematic account of all the known i species.) It is very difficult to give an adequate account of this im-j portant work, for there is hardly a stage in the life-history of a plant, | from the germination of the seed to the maturing of the fruit, that is| not thoroughly described, not only anatomically but with continual I references to experiments and physiology, in this paper. | There are many points of great interest to horticulturists. The three genera, Hippophaii, Shepherdia, and Elaeagiius, seem to prefer rather moist, loose, and argillo-siliceous soils, but the last-named is more accommodating and grows in many soils, though not in limy ground. Hippophae is of great use in fixing river-shingles, gravelly land, or even sand dunes (as at Ostend), and soon ties down the shifting material by its system of branching roots. Suckers may be planted at three or four yards apart; the accumulation of vegetable soil is much favoured by burning the bushes every third or fourth yeai in late autumn or early spring. The number of thorns and spinescence, generally depends essentially on the action of the environment, as tlifj author 'shows by microscopic evidence and by his experiments ; there are other interesting notes as to the effect of altitude, of a dry climate: of culture, and of growth underground, in altering the anatomica. structure of stems, roots, and leaves. He considers that H. tihetanc Schlect. and H. salicifolia Don are only subspecies of H. rlia7nnoides produced by the very different climates in which these species an NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 241 found (the first grows at over 12,000 feet in Tibet, and the second on the warm and humid slopes of the Himalayas). The peculiar nodosities or swellings on the roots of Elaeagnaceae are apparently distinctly of service to the plant; the author's experi- ments showed that plants inoculated with extract of other tiodosities were much more vigorous than those which were not so treated. The pollen of Hippophae is carried by ants, which visit aphides on the plant, but also and especially by the wind. Elaeagnus, which forms flowers in winter and even when covered by snow, is able to pollinate itself, but is usually fertilized by insects. The fleshy fruit of Hippophae is relished by birds, but the author found that all the seeds were destroyed in the gizzard of the " geai " (? jay or jackdaw) which was kept by him, and he doubts the import- ance of this method of distribution, although he admits that the presence of Hippophae in many isolated places (as on the railway talus at Perrignier) is best explained by bird-distribution. Usually the fruit dries on the tree during winter and falls off in spring. (The pulp hinders or prevents germination.) The fruit is able to float for long distances in consequence of the air being retained between the seed and the membranous sac formed by the ovary. Variegation in Elaeagnus is considered as caused by disease. There is a discussion of the affinities of the family and some interest- ing remarks on the physiological part played by calcium oxalate, tannin, and eleagnine in the economy of the plant. Most of the book is taken up with the comparative anatomy of roots, stems, and leaves, but including the primary and secondary struc- tures, growing points, development of flower, pollen-sac, embryo-sac, fertilization, development of embryo; in fact, every part is described microscopically and illustrated by excellent figures. The classification adopted is that of Van Tieghem and Bonnier. It is impossible to abstract these details. One should, however, mention that complete keys are furnished by which one can discover the species of Elaeagnus or Shepherdia merely by the anatomy of the stem, or of the leaf or of the root. Perhaps the most interesting part of this section is the clear description of the development of the characteristic stellate hairs of the order and of the fruit of Hippophae. — G. F. S.-E. Electricity and Micro-Orgranisms. By G. E. Stone {Bot. Gaz. xlviii.; Nov. 1909; pp. 359-379; 2 figs.).— In order to test the influence of electric currents on the growth of bacteria, the author used wide-mouthed jars (21 cm. by 10 cm.) stoppered with cotton-wool and containing strips of copper and zinc (4 cm. wide). These electrodes were placed in the jars against the side and connected by copper wire. Under the influence of the current so produced (0*1 milHampere) the I number of bacteria per cubic centimetre increased from about 3000 to 43,000 on the flrst day and 108,000 on the second day. In similar jars not stimulated the number was only 3463 on the first and I 3435 per c.cm. on the second day. VOL. XXXVI. -D 242 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Cultures of Alfalfa bacteria {Pseudomonas mdicicola) and of Bacillus megatherium also increased enormously under electrical treat- ment. With a current of '3 milliampere colonies of the first -mentioned increased to over 5,000,000 on the eighth day (control 50,217), and of the second to 7,650,000 on the fifteenth day (control 32,000). But with this method zinc oxide increases in the jars and eventually poisons the bacteria. A large increase of bacteria in milk was also obtained by a cur- rent of '3 milhampere. This amounted to over 94,000,000 and over 83,000,000 per c.cm., whilst in milk not stimulated the increase was not more than 7,000,000 and 6,000,000 per c.cm. Static electricity was also used with milk bacteria. Thus, on June 11, three similar jars with milk contained 8342 bacteria per cubic centimetre. On June 15, one which was not electrified contained 9,876,000 per c.cm. ; the second, charged with one spark (positive), contained 70,500,000; and the third, v/ith one spark (negative), 79,600,000 per c.cm. But with higher charges (such as 100 sparks every hour, or three times a day, or even once only) the bacteria were injuriously affected. With the higher charges, in fact, the number of bacteria was reduced from 219,250 per c.cm. to 481 (positive charge) and 266 (negative charge) in five hours, whilst in the untreated jar the number had increased to over 1,000,000. Still, even with the heaviest charges, it was not found possible to suppress micro-organisms. The author states, however: Undoubtedly the use of strong electrical currents is capable of destroying bacteria and preventing milk from deteriorating, ' ' and * ' in some tests made of electrically treated milk we found that souring was delayed. ' ' Positive charges (static electricity) were found to stimulate the growth of bacteria more decidedly than negative ones ; the same differ- ence had been noted by the author in experiments on the growth of seedhngs. In another experiment the author used boxes of fairly good loam (8x8x8 inches) in which electrodes (strips of zinc and copper 8x8 inches) were placed at either end and connected by copper wires. Unfortunately the number of bacteria diminished in these boxes, but by a greater amount in those boxes which were not electrified. In another case static electricity was used (twelve wires brought to a similar box and attached to a metal bulb on a Topler-Holtz machine, which was given 100 sparks once a week). In this case the bacteria in the electrically treated soil increased from 4,506,700 per gm. to 27,756,000 in seven days, whilst in the untreated soil they only increased from 1,097,290 to 1,960,780 per gm. Other experiments on yeast showed that, under the influence both of static and galvanic electricity, a larger amount of carbonic acid v/as given off by electrified yeast. In one case in four days (galvanic treatment) 1200 c.cm. of OO2 were given by the electrified, and only 50 c.cm. by the control yeasts. The latent period lasted usually from 15 to 25 minutes ; it was followed NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 243 by a considerable acceleration in gas-production. A charge of one or two minute sparks from a Ley den jar seemed to cause the most active response on the part of the yeast. The optimum current for the germination of seeds and the growth seedlings, as well as for micro-organisms, is, in the author's opinion, not far from O'l milliampere. " Minute currents of electricity exist in plants, and it is known that during certain periods trees discharge sparks from the apices of the leaves, and trees may tend to equalize differences in potential between the earth and air. ' ' " Electricity, like other forms of stimulation, undoubtedly affects the protoplasm of the plant, which causes certain metabolic processes to become active, and accelerated growth results." It will be seen that this paper is of great interest to the many who are now experimenting with electrical gardening. — G. F. S.-E. Eremurus Elwesianus. By E. A. Bowles (Garden, Nov. 6, 1909, p. 543). — This is vigorous in constitution; a mulch of manure in early spring helps vigorous growth, but it is best to wait till the shoot is well through the ground before applying it. The method is described by which the plant secures cross-fertilization. — H. R. D. Eremurus robustus. By Eev. F. Page Eoberts {Garden, Oct. 23, 1909, p. 518). — Lifting every three years, or annually if the soil is inclined to be wet, is advised. It is beneficial to keep the plants out of the ground two or three weeks. — H. R. D. Eria rhodoptera. By E. A. Eolfe (Bot. Mag. tab. 8296). Nat. ord. Orchidaceae; tribe Eyidendreae. Philippines. Herb, with pseudo- bulbs. Leaves 4^-10 in. long. Scapes erect, 5^-7 in. long. Eacemes many flowered. Flowers pale straw or white, with crimson petals and side-lobes of lip. — G. H. Femlinde in Dortmund (Die Gart. ; February 5, 1910, p. 68).— This old tree of the Linden (Tilia vulgaris), the age of which is surmised to be over a thousand years, has to be removed; the principal part, a mere old shell, to the museum, and a small tree, probably a layer, to another public place. Under the old tree the old courts of the Holy Fem (or Vehm) were held, that secret tribunal which Walter Scott has described in his Anne of Geierstein.—G. R. Ferrous Sulphate, Relative Toxicity of, for Barley and Rye Seedlings. By B. L. Hartwell and F. E. Pember {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Rhode I., 21st Ann. Rept. part 2; (1908); pp. 286-294).— The presence of iron sulphate (ferrous sulphate) appears to act adversely upon the seedlings of barley and rye to about the same extent, reducing the amount of water transpired and the growth of the plants in both •cases considerably, as is shown in the following table. R 2 244 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Average green weight Barley Rye 100 . . 160 76 . . 71 59 . .56 The amount of depression in weight was nearly equal to that pro- duced by the addition of sulphuric acid of equal strengths, and it seems probable that the suggestion made by Boiret and Paturel {Ann. Agron. vol. xviii. (1892), p. 417-440) that the adverse action of ferrous sul- phate on growth is due to the liberation of sulphuric acid as the salt passes to the ferrous condition is the true one. — F. J. C. Feptilizing- Value of Hairy Vetch for Connecticut Tobacco Fields. By T. E. Eobinson {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Girc. 15 ; October 1908). — Preliminary facts were published in 1905 in regard to "a new and valuable cover crop for tobacco fields," namely, Eussian or hairy vetch {Vicia villosa). This legume was found to be resistant to cold, heat, and drought; occupied the ground during the fall, winter, ajid spring; decayed rapidly when turned under, and enriched the soil by its ability to *' fix " or utilize atmo- spheric nitrogen when properly inoculated — that is, when the bacteria were present to cause the formation of root nodules. Unless the bacteria were artificially supplied it was found that nodule formation was lacking or very tardy. *' The roots of plants from inoculated seed bore many tubercles, some aggregations of them being as large as corn kernels. When the seed was not inoculated the roots bore few, if any, nodules, and the growth of the plants was much less vigorous " (Conn. Agr. Exp. Stn. Bull. 149, p. 6). The present circular deals with the necessity of inoculating the seed, as where hairy vetch has been inoculated and an abundance of root nodules have resulted the tobacco following has been greatly benefited both as to yield and quality. Tables are given showing results of experiments with inoculated and uninoculated hairy vetch. — F. G. J. Forestry Conditions in Ohio. By W. J. Green and E. Secrest {U.S.A. Agr. Exf. Stn., Ohio, Bull. 204, June 1909).— The conditions of forestry in Ohio are encouraging, and the account of the various species of Catalpa must be read with pleasure by those who are in- terested in the growth of the tree in this country. There is an | exhaustive list of the principal forest trees, no fewer than twelve of which are commonly cultivated in the British Isles. — A. D. W. Forestry in the United States, The Status of. By T. Cleve- land {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Forest Service, Circ. 167, Sept. 1909).-- A valuable account is given of what is being done both by the State and private persons in the matter of forest extension. Three- fourths of the forests are in private hands. — A. D. W. Without ferrous sulphate N ferrous sulphate . 2500 ^ N ferrous sulphate . 1250 ^ NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 245 Freesia History. By Eev. Joseph Jacob (Garden, Dec. 4, 1909, p. 590). — The first to come to this country was Freesia reyanda, intro- duced in the early part of last century and figured in Bot. Eeg.," t. 135. It seems to have been neglected for many years. Next came F. Leichtlini, found by chance among some neglected pots by Max Leichtlin in the botanic garden at Padua. It was shown by Dr. Wallace in April, 1875, who, three years later (1878), obtained a F.0.0. for F. refracta alba. In 1882 Messrs. Sutton introduced an improved form, F. refracta major. The same firm introduced some pink varieties in 1907. The work of Dr. Attilio and Van Tubergen is also noted. F. H. Chapman, beginning in 1904, has chiefly worked on the yellow forms.— i?. R. D. Fruit Trees, Pruningr Mature. By 0. B. Whipple (U.S.A. Exp. Stn., Colorado Agr. Coll., Bull. 139, Feh. 1909; 15 figs.).— This bulletin deals with the pruning of the hardy fruits grown as orchard trees in Colorado — apples, apricots, cherries, peaches, pears, plums, and quinces — ^particularly with regard to the forming of the shape of the tree and its fruiting habit, with the influence of these two upon each other. As all food material capable of healing a wound takes a downward course through the inner bark, the author points out that to heal well a wound mus^ be in a position to intercept this flow of sap from foliage higher up, and maintains that wounds heal best when made at a season of the year when growth is most active, advising the postponing of winter pruning until as near the opening of the growing season as possible. The thinning of the fruit is also dealt with, being regarded as a form of pruning, and it is held that even spur-bearers like the apple and pear should produce a good crop of fruit buds every year if this is properly attended to, while a thinned tree in two suc- cessive years will produce as much fancy fruit as an unthinned tree of both fancy and choice. — A. P. Fruit Trees, Top-working". By 0. B. Whipple (U.S.A. Exp. Stn., Colorado Agr. Coll., Bull. 147, June 1909; 7 figs.).— Full instructions are given for the top -working of fruit trees, both old and young, by grafting and budding. The author holds that both with undesirable old trees and young ones not true to name it is better to top-work them with other varieties than to plant fresh trees, always assuming that the trees to be worked are in vigorous growth. He thinks that some varieties of apples particularly susceptible to root-rot and woolly aphis could be successfully grown on the roots of varieties which are apparently resistant, e.g. ' Northern Spy,' which is usually immune from Woolly Aphis. Scions should be taken from the most satisfactory trees in a plantation of the same variety, and when working an old tree no more limbs should be cut away than is necessary for the setting of sufficient scions to ensure a good top, cutting away the remaining branches the two following years. — A. P. Fruit Trees, New Varieties of, Want of Vigour in. By M. Nomblot ( Jo2ir. Soc. Nat. Hort. Fr. Nov. 1909, p. 679).— 246 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. M. Nomblot, in a paper on this subject, mentions first the three ways in which the new varieties which are placed on the market are obtained : (1) By chance seedhngs; (2) by sowings made without prehminary fertihzation; (3) by sowings made from seeds which have been fertihzed on a more or less settled plan. Once raised, the seedlings are not selected sufficiently with a view to their individual healthiness, and the methods of cultivation to which they are subjected are not always calculated to produce a good constitution in the specimens. Further, in perpetuating good varieties, either by graft or cutting, every available shoot is liable to be made use of, whether thoroughly healthy or not. M. Nomblot, in a second paper (p. 680, Nov. 1909), gives directions for the raising of young fruit trees from seed and for the treatment best calculated to produce healthy stock. — M, L. H. Fruit Trees, Young-, Advantage of Importing- from Dif- ferent Soil and Climate {Jour. Soc. Nat, Hort. Fr. Nov. 1909, p. 680). — Opinion on this subject is still divided, but the debate here recorded ended with the conclusions that, if it is not actually proved to be an advantage to plant trees which have been raised in a different soil and climate, at all events the acclimatization of such trees need present no difficulties, and, in any case, it is better to attempt it than to go on reproducing a variety indefinitely under the same uniform conditions. — M. L. H. Fung-i, Gravity and the Growth of {Bot. Gaz. vol. xlviii. December 1909, pp. 414-426; with 13 figs.).~Miss Stella G. Streeter found that when young and vigorously growing toadstools {Amanita phalloides) are placed horizontally the stipe bends upwards and carries the pileus up to and beyond the horizontal position. Then, by a subse- quent change in growth-direction, the horizontal position is obtained. The sensitive zone is situated near the tip of the stipe, and the zone of most rapid elongation is always just below the pileus. The reaction follows sometimes after less than a minute's stimulation, and the latent period varied from 40 to 60 minutes. — G. F. S.-E. Fung-icides, Copper. By the Duke of Bedford, K.G., and Spencer U. Pickering, F.K.S. {Wohurn, Eleventh Report, 1910).— As the fungus and the host plant upon which it lives are both vegetable organisms built up of similar cells, they will probably be affected in the same way by any deleterious substance applied to them (p. 3), and the authors of this report state that " no direct fungicidal action is possible without the risk, and, indeed, almost the certainty, of some damage to the plant." " The rate at which insoluble copper is rendered soluble, and the strength of the solution existing at any time in the form of droplets on the leaves, must always be unknown quantities, which will vary with the varying atmospheric conditions at the time " (p. 9). Damp, muggy weather, mainly by causing a rapid liberation of soluble copper, is the most conducive to injury (p. 101), which consists of the destruction of protoplasm. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 247 In fungicides of the Bordeaux type the copper is insoluble at first, but becomes gradually soluble later on ; and it is held that the dissolving agent is usually and mainly, with the aid of moisture, the carbon dioxide of the air (p. 11), and not often substances excreted by the fungus itself or the leaves of the host plant (p. 106), while the action of the fungicide is regarded as due in part to the permeation of the leaves by the soluble copper, and in part to the coating of copper car- bonate on the outside of the leaf (pp. 4 and 112). Better results are obtained from substances insoluble to start with than from those con- sisting of compounds of copper already in a soluble form (p. 181). It is a fallacy, however, that the presence of any soluble copper in a spray should be avoided (p. 7). The Woburn Bordeaux, the making of which was described in the Eighth Eeport (p. 9), is now estimated to be twelve times as efficient as ordinary Bordeaux (p. 59). The latter, when dry, is not satisfactory as a substitute for a freshly prepared solution, but it is now possible to obtain the Woburn mixture, or another basic sulphate analogous to it, in the form of paste, and at a cost considerably less than that of the copper sulphate alone which the grower would have to use to make Bordeaux of the same efficiency in the ordinary way. This paste simply requires mixing with water at the rate of about 15 pounds to 100 gallons to reproduce a substance which, as regards the copper compound present in it, is absolutely identical with that of a freshly-made preparation (p. 183). In the making of ordinary Bordeaux the lime should be as weak as possible (p. 50), any increase of this ingredient tending to delay and diminish fungicidal action without materially reducing the risk of injury when the scorching action of lime itself is taken into account (pp. 16 and 185). Experience is tending towards a reduction in the strength of the mixture, the usual formula recommended now being 9^ pounds of copper sulphate and the same amount of lime to 100 gallons of water p. 185). The prevalent idea that Bordeaux does not begin to act for some days after its apphcation has been disproved (p. 186), though the effects may not become visible at once. The addition of treacle to the mixture is not recommended, as it results in a liquid of very variable strength (p. 80). Bordeaux mixtures should not be kept in tinned-iron vessels, some, especially Woburn Bordeaux emulsion and paste, acting on these metals and becoming rapidly decomposed (p. 48). Growers have in many cases scorched the foliage of their trees by the use of Bordeaux emulsion when sent out in tin canisters (p. 70). When buying a fungicide it should be remembered that its efficiency is not to be estimated by the amount of copper contained in it, but by the amount which becomes soluble and therefore available for fungi- cidal action (p. 6). It is likewise irrational to judge of its value by the amount of deposit left on the leaves. Numerous experiments on scorching and fungicidal action are detailed in the report (p. 116 et seq.), and it has been found that the scorching action of different salts of copper is independent of the nature of the salt taken, and depends solely on the quantity of copper present 248 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTTCULTURAL SOCIETY. (p. 158). Negative results were obtained by adding substances to copper fungicides to increase their power of wetting leaves, but they afforded an excellent illustration of the danger of adding any substances to such mixtures without a proper scientific examination of the changes which they may bring about (p. 159). — A. P. Ginkgo, Stamens of {Bot. Gaz. vol. xlix. pp. 51-55, January 1910; with 1 plate). — Miss Anna M. Starr finds that the older stamens are at the base, and that the development of the micro- sporangium is probably like that of the Cycads. The way in which the mucilage ducts " in the hump " are formed may indicate that the stamens of Ginkgo developed from a peltate type, like those of Taxus. G. F. S.-E. Grape-leaf Skeletonizer, The. By P. E. Jones {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. of Entom., Bull. 68, part 8; Jan. 1909; figs.).— The insect dealt with is a small moth (Harrisana americana, Gu^r.), which lays its eggs in clusters on grape leaves, and the larvae destroy the soft tissue of the leaf by advancing in regular order over the surface, feeding as they go. An arsenical spray is recommended, but the best means of prevention is clean cultivation. — F. J. G. Grasses, Comparative Anatomy of the {Beih. Bot. Ceniralhl. XXV. 2 Abt. Heft iii., pp. 421-489; December 1909; with 17 figs.). — Professor Ernst H. L. Krause attempts in this paper to use the anatomical structure in grasses as an aid to the naming of species, and claims that over two thousand species may be readily brought into their tribes and distinguished by his classification. Reference must be made to the original for the system adopted and the microscopic details described. — G. F. S.-E. Grasses, Sand-binding-. By T. W. Kirk and A. H. Cockayne {Dep. of Agr. N.Z., Leaf. 79, Feb. 1909; figs.).— One of the duties which devolve upon the inhabitants of New Zealand is the pro- tection of the islands from the dangers of drifting sand. Their three thousand miles of coast are, as a whole, slowly rising, but this rising causes immense masses of sand to be washed up, which the wind, if powerful and persistent enough, carries far inland over large tracts of otherwise rich arable land. To check this invasion of sand it is necessary to use various native and exotic sand-binding grasses. Of these the most valuable is the Marram grass {Psamma arenaria), a European grass which roots at every point, extends rapidly, and, being almost totally unnutritious, is not eaten down by herbivorous animals. It also possesses the great advantage of quietly giving place to grasses of more intrinsically valuable character as the settled and fertilized sand becomes gradually suited to their growth. The other sand-binders in use are the foreign Elymus arenarius, which has not the advantage of giving way to other vegetation as the Marram grass does, and the native Spinifex hirsutus and Scirpus fronclosus (Cyperaceae). — M. L. H. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 249 Guava Jelly. By J. Belling {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Florida, Bept. 1908; pp. 105-109). — Experiments were carried out as to the best method of making guava jelly. A recipe for its making (for which the original should be consulted) is given. — F. J. C. Grypsy and Brown Tail Moths. By \Vm. Stuart {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Vermont, Circ. 2; Mar. 1909; %s.). — These two troublesome European insects have spread to all the New England States except Vermont. They are figured and methods of dealing with them are detailed. See previous abstracts. — F. J. C. Hyacinths, Propagation of. By Piet Ammerlaau {Gard. Mag. No. 2916, September 18, 1909; figs.). — Four very clear and interest- ing illustrations explain two systems by which one hyacinth bulb is made to produce bulblets to the number of sixty or even eighty in one season. The bulblets have, of course, to be grown on to flowering size, but the method of reproduction is simple and very rapid. — E. B. Hydrocyanic Acid in Green Plants, Role of. Part III. By M. Treub {Ami. Jard. Bot. Buit. viii. series ii. pp. 85-118; 6 plates). — Hydrocyanic acid Is the first recognizable product of the assimilation of nitrogen, and is perhaps the first organic nitrogenous product to be formed. — S. E. W . Injurious Insects. By Fabian Garcia {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. New Mexico, Bull. 68; Aug. 1908; figs.). — This is a popular bulletin deal- ing with the various insects commonly proving injurious in New Mexico. No new information is contained. — F. J. C. Inoculation of Beans, &C. By H. Garman {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Kentucky, 19th Rept. {Bull. 125); 1906; figs.). — Experiments on different soils with cultures of nodule bacteria are reported, both dry and moist cultures being tried. The yield was not greater from the inoculated than from the untreated plots and was sometimes less. F. J. C. Iris minuta. By O. Stapf {Bot. Mag. tab. 8293). Nat. ord. Tridaceae ; tribe Irideae. — Japan. Herb, dwarf and densely tufted. Leaves 18 in. long. Eootstock creeping and branching, with numerous slender tuberculated roots. Perianth 1-1^ in. across, yellow. — G. H. - Juncaceae, A New Parasitic Disease of the. By E. J. Schwartz {Ann. Bot. xxiv. 1910, p. 236). — Notes the occurrence of an attack in the roots of Junciis of a species of Sorosphaera. There is no hypertrophy ; infection takes place by means of an amoeba through the root hairs. A full account of the parasite, which is named S. junci, is promised later. — A. D. C. Leaf-position and Decapitation. By F. Bafsler {Bot. Zeit. Ixvii. 1 Abt. Heft v.-vii. pp. 67-91; July 1909).— When a stem is 250 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. decapitated by the removal of the growing-point the leaves change their position, rising or becoming more upright, so as to make a greater angle with the horizon. In some experiments this angle of the petiole •or leaf increased by as much as 40° to 50°, but usually by about 10° or 20°. Only younger leaves or those near the growing-point are affected; when an axillary bud develops, as often happens, the reaction ceases. The petioles show this movement on decapitation of the stem even when the leaf blade is cut off. The reaction is not affected by light and only influenced, not caused, by gravity. Injury to the growing- point (such as vertical or horizontal incisions) or the enclosure of it in gypsum does not produce the same effect as decapitation. The author considers that the reaction is not caused by " Wund- schok, " nutrition, gravity, or light, but that it is due to some unknown stimulus.— G. F. S.-E. Leaves and Light {Bot. Gaz. vol. xlviii. December 1909, pp. 459-461; with 1 fig.). — Mr. Joseph Y. Bergen finds (as pointed out by Wiesner) that the upper leaf-surface is in many plants concave for those exposed to sunlight, and not nearly so much so in those that are in shade. The sun leaves of a begonia, e.g. were at an angle of from 23° to 56°, whilst the shade-leaves were at 108° to 180°. Other measurements are also given. — G. F, S.-E. Leg'islation to Protect ag-ainst the Introduction of Insect and Fung-US Pests into Victoria {Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., Septem- ber 1909, pp. 593-602).—" The Victorian Potato Industry: The Inter- State Conference and the Irish Blight," by T. Cherry, Director of Agriculture. An original account of " The Potato Murrain," with illus- trations taken from the " Illustrated London News " of August 29, 1846, is given. The importance of the export trade, conditions favour- able to disease, the steps to be taken, and resolutions of the Conference are fully discussed. When once a disease is established, its eradication becomes a matter of great difficulty. The soil may become infected; the remains of one season's crop may carry on the infection to the next year; the micro-organism may betake itself to allied plants, and it may be transferred from one district to another by all kinds of unsus- pected ways. Knowledge of the life-history of the exciting cause may place us on the track of the right means to prevent it, but the con- ditions of life of both the disease and the plant it attacks are so com- plicated that caution has to be exercised in drawing conclusions from any set of experiments. A farmer very often talks as if slight differences in the soil of one part of his farm, or a few weeks' extra dry weather, were solely responsible for this or that result. As a matter of fact, no kind of experimental work is so uncertain as that which deals with plants and animals. The difference existing between living and dead things is so profound that insignificant variations in any respect may make unexpectedly great differences in the final result. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 251 The moral of which is that no farmer can afford to neglect the smallest detail when he is dealing with any question of disease. To meet the present emergency in the potato business the hearty co-operation of every potato-grower in Victoria, whether his plot is a few yards square or his farm contains 100 acres of potato land, must be secured. (1) Only clean seed should be used, and this must come from districts which are known to be free from disease. In addition to this, all seed must be cut and soaked in formalin (1 lb. to 30 gallons of water for a period of two hours) or other antiseptic. (2) All potatos, without any exception whatever, for the next two seasons should be grown on new land. (3) In future years a more systematic rotation of crops should be carried out. (4) Spraying. The Government of Victoria has determined that a fair share of the cost of eradicating the disease will be defrayed by the Department. By means of the assistance that can be rendered by the staff of the Department it is highly probable that a farmer can be safely piloted through a dangerous period with a minimum of expense. New bags or cases should be used for seed potatos. Rejected seed should be placed in a barrel and boiled before feeding to pigs. New ground and rotation with peas and clover are insisted on. Then follow twenty -four resolutions of the Inter- State Conference of Ministers of Agriculture regarding the transfer of potatos, fruits, vegetables, and plants. — C. H. H. Legrumes, Native, in Nebraska and Kansas, Notes on the Number and Distribution of. By J. A. Warren {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PI. hid., Circ. 31, June 1909). — Nature teaches that the growth of grasses cannot be kept up without a corresponding growth of legumin- ous plants. Thus it is that amongst wild plants a quarter to three- quarters are leguminous, and on large areas of uncultivated land (notably in Maryland) the leguminous plants are unobtrusively doing their work in preparing the soil and opening the way to cultivated crops. Hence the necessity of including legumes in crop rotations even on rich lands. — C. H. L. Lemons, Italian, and their By-Products. By G. H. Powell and E. M. Chace {U.S.A. Dep. Ag(r., Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. 160; Oct. 1909 ; parts 1 and 2 ; 6 plates, 5 figs.). — Part 1 describes the Italian lemon industry, and some very interesting facts are given concerning the methods of cultivation. The lemon is budded or grafted on the stock of the bitter orange {Citrus Bigaradia), which grows wild in Sicily and in the mountains of Calabria, and is now used universally as a stock on account of its resistance to the gum disease, which devastated the groves of Sicily thirty years ago, when the trees were propagated on lemon stock. Part 2 deals with the by-products of the lemon, citrate of lime or calcium citrate being the most important. This is an intermediate pro- duct in the manufacture of citric acid. Citric acid is not made in 252 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Italy. The citrate of lime is exported to different countries, there to be converted into the acid. — V. G. J. Lenticels, Exuberant Formation of, in Oak Seedling*. By Bertha Chandler (Trans. Roy. Bot. Soc. Edin. vol. xxiv. part. i. pp. 35 and 36; 1 plate). — The presence of an excessive water supply to seedling oaks caused the abnormal lenticel formation figured. E. A. Bd. Lig-ht and Heat, Influence of, in the Production of Org-anic Matter in Tea Plants. By J. Bosscha (Ann. Jard. Bot. Suit. viii. series ii. pp. 66-68). — A relation exists between the clearness of the sky and the amount of growth of the leaves of the tea shrubs. The clearness of the sky was judged by the daily difference between tlje minimum and maximum temperature. This is termed the amplitude of temperature. — S. E. W. Lilies. By E. H. Jenkins (Garden, Sept. 4, 1909, p. 429).-- L. candidum is a sun lover, and shallow planting should be practised. It may be planted near trees with excellent results, especially near yew, holly, or pine, which show up the purity of the blossoms. The drier conditions frequently found in such places are a material help in keeping the lily disease in check. Some bulbs weakened by disease were planted at the foot of a laburnum and allowed to become covered with London pride; they had given moderately good spikes each year. L. testaceum possesses some affinities with L. candidum.. L. Hansoni should be planted where there is shelter from cold winds and strong sunlight ; it is the better if the root run is in comparative dryness. It and the forms of L. auratum are at home in the root companionship of other plants; they are particularly benefited from association with rhododendrons. Lilies without stem-roots — e.g. L. ckalcedonicum and the swamp lilies — are usually slow to become established. L. Henryi should be staked and tied low down, and afterwards allowed to go its own way. — H. R. D. Lilium candidum. Disease in. By Mrs. L. M. (Garden, Sept. 18, 1909, p. 455). — A bad attack was cured by digging up the bulbs, burn- ing the worst, and keeping the rest in a bag of sulphur for six weeks before replanting. — H. R. D. Lilium nepalense. By A. M. (Garden, Oct. 9, 1909, p. 491).— At Ambleside this lily does well if taken up directly it has flowered, put into a box (not pot), and wintered in a cold frame. — H. R. D. Lime and Sulphur. By P. J. Oarmody (Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., September 1909, p. 586).— Lime, 20 lb.; flowers of sulphur, 15 lb.; water, 50 gallons. Slake the lime in about 20 gallons of water, and add the sulphur, previously mixed up into a stiff paste, to the slaking lime. The whole mixture should be boiled for one hour in an iron NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 253 kettle over a fire, keeping well stirred all the time, after which the full quantity of water may be added and then promptly applied before the sulphides are lost by cooling and crystallization. Material should be strained and thoroughly agitated. To increase adhesiveness, 2 or 3 lb. of salt may be added. — C. H. H. Lime Sulphur, Self-boiled. By P. J. Carmody {Jo^ir. Dep. Agr. Vict., September 1909, p. 586). — Lime, 10 lb.; sieved sulphur, 10 lb. ; water, 50 gallons. Place lime in barrel and pour on enough water to start it slaking, about six quarts. Then add the sulphur, and finally enough water to slake the lime into a paste. Keep well stirred, and after the violent boiling ceases the mixture should be diluted ready for spraying. Five to fifteen minutes are required for the process, according as the lime is quick-acting or sluggish. — C. H. H. Mag-nolia glauca. By E. Eiebe {Die Gart., April 30, 1910, p. 205). — A rapid-growing, very hardy species, a native of the United States. The best plants were usually found in damp, marshy ground. Although deciduous in fairly sheltered positions, it is quite evergreen. The leaves are glaucous green, and the flowers, which are less con- spicuous than those of M. Yula7i, appear late in the summer, and are very fragrant. Magnolia Yiilan var. conspicua, an early flowering, very showy plant, is also described and illustrated. — G. R. Magnolia g-randiflora and its Varieties. By W. D. {Garden, Sept. 4, 1909, p. 432). — In the Midlands and North this is grown as a wall plant, but farther South does well in the open. It should be planted in its permanent quarters when quite small, as it is impatient of root disturbance. Seven varieties are described, M. g. gloriosa being by far the most beautiful. — H. R. D. Mang-O. By J. Belling {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Florida, Rept. 1908; pp. 110-125; plates). — It is pointed out that mangos have, like the orange, more than one embryo in their seeds, and that in some cases the egg-cell does not produce an embryo. The extra embryos are developed from the nucellar tissue, and are therefore of the nature of buds, and likely to reproduce the characters of their one parent true.— F. J. G. Manures and Manuring-. By J. J. WilHs {Gard. Mag. No. 2927, December 4, 1909). — In view of the probable exhaustion of natural deposits of manures in the near future the production of artificial manures is a question of great importance. Two such manures are now being prepared in quantity and are known as Calcium cyanamide, or "lime nitrogen," and "basic nitrate of lime." The former is a black powder containing 20 per cent, of nitrogen, equal to 24 per cent, of ammonia. The latter is a brownish compound containing about 13 per cent, nitrogen and 25 to 30 per cent. lime. Both are soluble in water and should form valuable plant foods. — E. B. 254 JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Meadow Formations and the Steppe Period in Alsace. By Prof. Ernst H. L. Krause (Bot. Zeit. Ixvii. Abt. 1, Heft viii./ix. Aug. 1909, pp. 141-173).— The oecology of the Vosges mountains and of the valleys from Basel to Strassburg is described. The author finds that there are two formations: first, what he classes as heath, which is characterized by Calluna and Vaccinium (including Nardus association) ; and, secondly, a less uniform meadow formation (Wiesen) which merges into Phragmites and other reed associations in wet places, and in drier situations becomes a " HartfeU " or " Hartheath," characterized by Andropogon ischaemum. Nehring's hypothesis of a Steppe period during the Pleistocene, at which time a continuous Steppe, with the characteristic plants and animals, is supposed to have extended from the Black Sea to Upper Germany and France, is severely criticized by the author. There is no proof that the climate of that time was either warmer or drier than it is in the same districts to-day, although it may certainly have been warmer and drier than in the glacial epochs which preceded it. Even now the author shows that there is not so very much difference between the climate of the Black Sea Steppes and that of the district alluded to. Such plants as Stipa pennata, Eryngium campestre, &c., which occur in Alsace, are not necessarily, though they may be, relicts of a Steppe flora. The vegetation of the supposed Steppe period would be a transitional stage between the tundra-like fields of the Arctic regions and the Northern forests. Then he thinks that woods spread over almost the whole country, though it could not be absolutely continuous forest, for there would always be open spaces due to local climatic or physical causes (rock, altitude, &c.). Man seems to have appeared in Upper Germany at least four thousand years before any botanical examination of the flora was carried out. But numerous American plants are firmly established in Europe after only a few hundred years, so that he considers that the supposed Steppe relicts may either have been introduced or spread naturally from the Black Sea region during this long period, or may even have lived on in the forest clearings and open spaces. There is no proof, in his opinion, that a continuous Steppe extended from the Black Sea to Upper Germany. Briquet's Xerothermic period belongs to the last Palaeolithic age (La Madeleine), and the warm period in Sweden (Gunnar Andersen) belongs to the Neolithic age, when man had already settled in Alsace. A great number of species occur to-day both in the " Black Earth districts of Eussia and in Alsace, and Steppe species are found in wooded districts much colder than Germany. The differences in the flora of the Eussian Steppes and Alsace are explained as due partly to the colder winters of the Steppes, but espe- cially because the salt found in the soil does not exist in Germany. The meadow formations of Alsace are derived from freshwater marsh and the grasslands of the Black Earth, or from salt swamps. NOTES AND ABSTEACTS. 255 The author has also some interesting remarks on heather, or heath, which sm^vives in places where it would not pay either to cultivate or afforest. When left alone and protected from grazing, these heaths would be overgrown by forest or wood, and partly at least develop eventually into moor (i.e. peatmoss). Such a moor, when it had increased in height to a certain level, would be annexed by heather over- growing the dead sphagnum, a'nd again be covered by wood. The sub-alpine plants characteristic of the Vosges agree best with those of the Pyrenees; there are fewer of them on the Alps, and still fewer in the Black Forest. The Hartfelds are without question former woodlands on which ruderal plants have established themselves. G. F. S.-E. Mechanical Tissue in Stems, Effect of Tension on the Forma- tion of {Bot. Gaz. vol. xlviii. pp. 251-274; October 1909).— Mr. John S. Bordner gives a short resume of previous experiments dealing with the effect of a pull or traction in developing mechanical tissue in stems. His experiments are fully explained, and figures are given showing the differences found between the experimental and the control plants in every case. The results may be perhaps most clearly shown by the following table : — ■ Average Increases per cent, in Breaking Strength Xylem Area Cross Sec- tion Hard Bast Wall Number of Hard Bast Elements Thickness Xylem Wall Helianthus annuus, greenhouse . 57-6 40 16 12-5 Helianthus annuus, field . 19-6 Helianthus annuus, field . 5-8 Sinapis alba, field 32 -10 52 38 5 Phaseolus vulgaris, greenhouse . 33 22 15 Phaseolus vulgaris, greenhouse . 42-5 14-9 Vinca major .... 15-2 Vinca major .... 18 30 13 13 Eicinus communis 6-4 4 •1 micron Kubus occidentalis -30 13-6 Vieia Faba 21 8-3 14-8 Lupinus albus .... 14 m The author concludes that actively growing herbaceous stems do respond to traction along their longitudinal axes by increasing their breaking strength and by the development of mechanical tissue. Inter- nodes which had finished their growth were in two instances unable to respond.— G. F. S.-E. Medicinal Barks, American. By Ahce Henkel {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Bull. 139, June 1909; plates). — This paper gives a catalogue of the twelve official native American barks — that is, the twelve out of the seventeen recognized in the latest revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia, which are furnished by indigenous or introduced trees and shrubs. It also includes the twenty- three other non-official 256 JOURNAL OF THE ROVAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. native barks which appear to be most in demand. To the Latin name of each are added synonyms and the pharmacopoeial name, if any, the common name or names, its habitat, range, a description of the tree or shrub, as well as of the bark itself as found in commerce, and informa- tion concerning collection, uses, and prices : a warning being added that these last are only meant to give collectors an idea of the range of prices, which are, of course, subject to the fluctuations of the drug market. An illustration is given in the case of most of the species. M. L. H. Mexican and Central American Plants. By J. N. Bose {Contr. jr. U.S.A. Herb. xii. (1909); pt. 7; figs.).— The results of a botanical journey into Mexico are here described, many new species including Aquilegia viadrensis from Sierra Madre, four new species of Ceanothus (including one, C. Candolleanus, which is thought to be the C. azureus of De Oandolle's Prodromus [2: 31, 1825]), six new Cupheas, some with fair-sized flowers, several new Cacti, and a large number of Lopezias. Plates of Beaucarnea Goldmanii, Echinocactus Palmeri, Opuntia azurea, 0. Lloijdii, and 0. vilis, accompany the text. — F. J. G. Moisture Content and Shrinkagre in Grain. By J. W. T. Duvel {U.S.A. Dep. Agr. Bur. PI. Ind., Circ. 32, July 1909.)— A series of tables showing loss or shrinkage in weight compared with reduction in percentage of moisture, resulting from the drying of grain, the difference between them depending on the quantity of water originally contained in the grain, and the extent to which the drying is carried. This is a fruitful source of trouble between grain merchants and operators of elevators, or commercial grain driers. — C. H. L. Narcissus Engelhearti. By J. Sangster {Garden, Sept. 4, 1909, p. 430). — The Rev. J. Jacob, having asked for the experience of growers as to the vigour of this section of Narcissus, his experience with them having been unfavourable (Garden, Aug. 21, p. 410), the writer states that he has found ' Gold Eye ' to be a poor doer, ' Egret ' better, but by no means robust, and ' Moira ' " miffy." With these exceptions he considers the group to be satisfactory. ' Incognita,' ' Cresset,' and * Mars ' are specially mentioned as robust. F. H. Chapman also finds * Gold Eye ' an exception to the other- wise satisfactory charact-er of the group. — H. R. D. New Plants. By J. N. Eose {Contr. jr. U.S.A. Herh. xii. (1909); pt. 9; plates). — The following new plants are figured and described: Pereskia autumnalis (Pvose), a tree up to 30 feet tall from Guatemala; Oyuntia Blakeana, and descriptions of 0. arizonica and 0. Toumeyi from Arizona; Echinocactus Baileyi, with large, light purple flowers with yellow stamens from Oklahoma; Nopalea lutea from Guatemala (aU Cactaceae) ; Conzatta arborea, a shrub with small yellow flowers in slender racemes and large leaves from Mexico. — F. J. C. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 257 New Plants from Guatemala {Bot. Gaz. vol. xlviii. pp. 294- 300; October 1909). — Mr. John Donnell Smith describes new species of Pithecolobium, Appunia, Palicoiirea, Paratliesis, Gonolohus, Tricho- stelma, Solanum, Athenaea, Brachistus, RuelUa (two sp.), Pseuder- anihemiim, DiclipUra, and Justicia. — G. F. S.-E. Onion Culture. By W. E. Beattie {U.S.A. Dep. Agr. Farmers' Bull., April 1909, 354). — In the Gulf Coast States onions are largely grown, the principal varieties being the Bermuda, Egyptian, and Spanish. The cost of growing these onions is higher than the ordinary and hardier kinds. An acre may cost on an average $80, not including crates. The yield to the acre is about 300 bushels, and the profit, taking one year with another, about $55. The more successful growers count on a net profit about equal to the cost of growing the crop. Supply equals demand at present, but both are increasing. The following is a good fertilizer for general use: — Sulphate of ammonia (25 per cent.) ... ... 2001b. Acid phosphate ... ... 800 ,, Muriate of potash (50 percent.) ... ... 400 C. H, L. Onions from Seed. By J. Troop and C. G. Woodbury {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Purdue, Circ. 15; illus.). — Between 3,000 and 5,000 acres are devoted in Northern Indiana to growing onions from seed. They are principally grown in " muck " land — i.e. drained swamp — which is 3 to 8 feet deep, fine and black. It is rich in nitrogen and deficient in potash. The use of farmyard manure tends to encourage the onion- maggot; therefore an artificial fertilizer is preferable. The following is recommended : — ■ with later dressings of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia (Voorhees). Some of the fertilizer should be placed under the seed in the rows, the remainder broadcast, or between the rows. The great necessity in onion-growing is to keep ahead of the weeds. Hand-weeding essential, but expensive. The cost of growing averages about $75 an acre from beginning to end. The yield, with a fair season and good care, is about 800 bushels an acre. The profit about $100 to $250 an acre. As one large grower expressed it, " It takes nerve and money to grow onions." VOL. XXXVI. s Dried blood Cotton-seed meal 300 „ 300 1,000 lb. to the acre, containing — ■ 5 per cent, nitrogen, 6 per cent, phosphoric acid, 10 per cent, potash, 268 JOUKNAL OF THE KOYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. For the maggot the best remedy is carboHc acid and hme. Slake the hme to a thin cream. Use 3 pints to 1 gallon of water ; add 1 table- spoont'ul crude carbolic. Apply weekly with great thoroughness, so that surface of soil about plants is well coated. — C. H. L. Orangre Thrips. By D. Moulton {U.S.A. .Dep. Agr. Bur. of Entom. Tech. Bull. 12, part 7; Feb. 1909; figs.).— This {Euthrips citri) is a new and troublesome pest of orange trees in California. Its attacks are characterized by curled and thickened leaves and marked fruits. The pest is less prevalent on loamy than on clayey soils. It is suggested that a strong tobacco wash should be used as a spray. The insect is described. — F. J. G. Orchid, Fertilization of a Green. By G. W. Bulman, M.A., B.Sc. (Knowledge, April 1910, pp. 129-130).— This article is based upon observations by Prof. Plateau, of the University of Ghent, whom the author supports in his view that the bright colours of flowers do not play the important role in attracting insects which is usually assigned to them. His observations extended to some seventy-nine species with green or greenish flowers, which he found able to attract all the attention from insects required for their pollination. The article is more particu- larly concerned with observations upon the methods of pollinating the Twayblade [Lister a ovata), an indigenous orchid bearing green flowers. Many observed details did not accord with those recorded by Darwin and others, the insects settling indifferently upon any part of the flower convenient, and commencing their consumption of nectar sometimes from the bottom of the furrow in the lower lip and sometimes from the top. Of 152 visitors not more than fifteen carried away pollen ; one ichneumon fly visited twenty flowers without carrying away any. Insects with pollen sometimes succeeded in freeing themselves from their burden, and of those which safely collected and retained pollen much was wasted on flowers already past the right stage ; but all this is compensated for by the multiplicity of visits, so that most of the flowers were successfully pollinated. One hundred and fifty-two visits observed included eighty-four Diptera, twenty-one ichneumon flies, forty-three other Hymenoptera, two Lepidoptera, and two beetles. Ichneumon flies, although constituting only about 14 per cent, of the visitors, led to about half the successful pollinations. — W. A. V. Orchid Portraits. — The following new and rare orchids have been figured recently : — Angraecum Kotschyi . . Gard. Chron. 1909, ii. p. 221, fig. 94. ^Anguloa Cliftonii . . . Gard. Mag. 1910, p. 83; Journ. Hort. 1910, i. p. 117. Brassocattleya x Cliftonii mag- nifica Gard. Mag. 1910, p. 31; Orch. Rev. 1910, p. 48, fig. 4. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 259 B.-c. X Wellesleyae Bulbophyllum Binnendijkii B. saurocephalum Calanthe lilacina *Cattleya x iridescens splendens Oirrliopetalum campanulatum C. Medusae .... Cycnoches densiflorum C. maculatum .... *Cypripedium x Boltonii . 0. X Cymatodes ' Beechense ' . -0. X ' Cynthia,' Westonbirt var. C. X ' Lord Vv'olmer ' C. X ' Mme. Alfred Bleu ' . C. X ' Memnon ' . . . *0. X 'Mrs. F. Sander' C. X ' The Lion ' . . . 0. X ' Wellesleyae ' . *Dendrobium taurinum Colmanii . "^D. X ' Duchess of Albany ' "^D. X ' Mrs. Fenton Arnton ' '''Houlletia Sanderi Laeliocattleya x ' Nelthorpe Beauclerk ' . *L.-c. X 'Pizarro,' Westonbirt var. . . . . Odontioda x Bradshawiae, Cookson's var. *Odontoglossum X Cravenianum . -0. X ' Gladys ' . . "^0. X splendens "^0. X Thompsonianum ' Gatton Park' .... "^Phaiocalanthe x Schroderiana . * A painted portrait of those having Royal Horticultural Society's collection. Gard. Mag. 1910, p. 123. Gard. Chron. 1910, i. p. 84, fig. 46. Gard. Chron. 1909, ii. p. 242, fig. 107. Gard. Chron. 1910, i. p. 66, fig. 38. Journ. Horf. 1910, i. p. 27. Bot. Mag. t. 8281; Orch. Rev. 1910, p. 73, fig. 6. Garden, 1910, i. p. 52. Bot. Mag. t. 8268. Orch. Rev. 1909, p. 273, fig. 21. Journ. Hort. 1909, ii. p. 529; Orch. Rev. 1910, p. 41, fig. 3. Journ. Hort. 1910, i. 95. Gard. Mag. 1909, p. 828. Gard. Mag. 1910, i. p. 107. Journ. Hort. 19gg^ ii. p. 611. Journ. Hort. 1910, i. p. 139. Gard. Chron. 1910, i. p. 19, fig. 19. Gard. Mag. 1909, p. 979. Orch. Rev. 1910, p. 81, fig. 7. Gard. Mag. 1909^ p. 813. Gard. Chron. 1910, i. p. 139, fig. 61. Gard. Chron. 1910, i. p. 149, fig. 64. Garden, 1909, n. p. 616. Garden, 1909, ii. p. 563. Orch. Rev. 1910, p. 59, fig. 5. Gard. Mag. 1910, p. 211; Orch. Rev. 1910, p. 113, fig. 9. Gard. Mag. 1910, p. 253. Gard. Mag. 1910, p. 191. Journ. Hort. 1910, i. p. 277. Journ. Hort. 1910, i. p. 233. G. W. an asterisk prefixed is preserved in the Ourisia macrophylla. By N. E. Brown {Bot. Mag. tab. 8295). Nat. ord. Scrophulariaceae ; tribe Digitaleae. New Zealand. Herb, s 2 260 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. perennial. Leaves radical. Flowers in 1-4, 3-8-flowered whorls. Corolla 10-11 lines across, white. — G. H. Paper Birch in the North-East. By S. T. Dana {U.S.A. Dep. Agr. Forest Service, Circ. 163, July 1909). — In addition to several important uses to which the timber of the paper birch (Be tula papyrifera) — a tree which, by the way, does well in this country — is applied, it is largely used in the making of toothpicks and for shoe-pegs, no fewer than 3000 cords being annually consumed in the manufacture of the former alone. — A. D. W. Peach, *Theophile Sueur.' By Pierre Passy [Rev. Hort. Dec. 16, 1909, pp. 574-575; col. plate). — Eaised from ' Grosse Mignonne Latue.' According to the plate, this is an extremely hand- some fruit of a deep rich crimson colour, which tint surrounds the stone star fashion, as shown by section. — C. T. D. Peach-tree Bark Beetle. By F. F. Wilson (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. of Entom., Bull. 69, part 9; Feb. 1909; figs.).— This beetle bores into the bark of peaches and often causes the death of the trees. The tunnels are not unlike those of Scolytus rugulosus, which also occurs in peaches and in other tress in Great Britain as well as in America. The life history of the pest (Phlaeotrihus liminaris, Harris) is described and the various stages are figured. The methods recom- mended for dealing with it are applicable to several other boring beetles and are as follows: — For Trees seriously Injured. — Severely trim back the trees and apply barn-yard manure or commercial fertilizers ; then apply a thick coat of whitewash three times a season, the first application to be made the last week in March, the second during the second week in July, and the third about the 1st of October. For Trees apparently Healthy hut slightly Attacked. — Paint the trees with a thick coat of whitewash three times each season, as in the previous treatment, applying it to the trunks and larger limbs. The whitewash applied at the times specified will act as a repellent, the emergence of the beetles being slightly later than the dates given for the different applications. Add ^ lb. table salt to each pail of white- wash, thus making the latter more adhesive. All the dead or nearly dead limbs and trees should be removed and burned as fast as they appear in an orchard, as this will destroy the breeding-places. These suggestions are made as the result of experiments, and if they were followed for similar pests they would need to be modified to some extent, according to their life-histories. — F. J. C. Peanuts. By W. R. Beattie (U.S.A. Dep. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 356, May 1909 ; illus.). — Peanuts constitute an important crop in the States, but should be still more grown in the waste lands of the Southern States, . and so avoid the necessity for buying peanut oil abroad. The fodder is also good. The peanut requires a long season of NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 261 growth, and the same cHmate as tobacco and cotton, and an abund- ance of Hme in the soiL Being leguminous, the nodules increase the store of nitrogen, provided the roots are left in the soil. The different varieties are " Virginia Bunch " and the climbing form (has large nuts), " Spanish " (smaller nuts, but richer in oil), *' Tennessee Eed " (rich in oil, but dark in colour), &c. Peanut oil resembles olive oil and cotton-seed oil, coming between the two, and is frequently added to both in order to lower or raise their respective quality. The nuts (or peas) are largely used in making candies. Ground fine they constitute peanut butter. The damaged nuts and waste products make excellent feed for stock, but it is liable to become rancid very quickly. Much of the commercial peanut oil is manufactured at Marseilles from nuts grown on the coast of Africa. These are very rich in oil — • as high as 50 per cent. When cut and cured, peanut hay is almost equal in feeding value to the best clover hay. — C. H. L. Pear-leaf Mite (Phy tortus piri). By L. Chasset {La Pom. Frang. October-November 1909, pp. 347-349). — This mite lives inside galls which open on the under side of the leaf. They are almost inaccessible to all insecticides ; they hibernate in cracks in the bark of the tree. The winter treatment recommended is lime sulphur, composed of water, 12 litres; quicklime, 2 kilos; flowers of sulphur, 500 grams to 1 kilo. Boil for half an hour, let cool, and paint the tree with it. In spring, when the leaves begin to unfold and the insects have not yet entered the leaves, spray with one of the following mixtures : (1) 1 litre of the above-mentioned sulphur and lime wash strained through a cloth, adding 50 or 60 litres of water; (2) ordinary tobacco juice, 1 litre to 15 or 20 litres of water; or (3) concentrated tobacco juice 500 grammes, soft soap 1 kilo, water 100 litres. Bichloride of mercury sprayed in spring has aJso been found to lessen the number of Phytoptus ipiri. — C. H. H. Pecans. By W. H. Hutt {U.S.A. Exp. Sin. N. Carolina, Bull. 30, No. 9; Sept. 1909; 25 figs.). — A preliminary report of observations and researches during the last three years on the subject of pecan culture in North Carolina. ' ' The pecan tree is a native of the southern Mississippi valley; in geographical distribution it thrives wherever the cotton does, and in the matter of soils it is as cosmopolitan as the strawberry. " " Among the nuts that yield the greatest amount of nourishment pecans stand almost first, the edible portion of the nuts containing 12-1 protein, 11-12 carbohydrates, 70' 7 fat, 1*6 mineral matter, and 3--1 water."— F. G. J. Perception of Light in Plants. By Harold Wager {Ann. Bot. vol. xxiii. July 1909, pp. 459-488; 2 plates).— It is well known that the stimulus which causes the foliage leaves of many plants to place themselves in such a position as to receive the fullest advantage from 262 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. the incident rays of light is perceived mainly by the leaf-blade, and that this stimulus is transmitted to the petiole, by which the turning of the leaf is brought about. The recent researches of Haberlandt have awakened fresh interest in this question. That author endeavoured to explain by what means the leaf perceived the most advantageous position for the incident rays. He showed that in many plants the upper epidermal cells are shaped like convex lenses, and being filled with a clear sap are able to bring about a convergence of light rays ; in others, special cells or local thickenings of the cuticle act in the same way. Haberlandt suggested that these cells are functional as ocelli, or primitive eyes, capable of setting up a stimulus which results in the heliotropic orientation of the leaf. The epidermal cells have a thin layer of protoplasm on their basal walls. When the leaf is at right angles to the light, the central portion of this layer in each cell is illuminated, the peripheral zone remaining dark. In oblique illumina- tion the bright spot of light moves to one side ; and this alteration in the position of the light spot, according to Haberlandt, sets up the stimulus which results in the orientation of the leaf into a more favourable position. The evidence for this conclusion is based upon the optical behaviour of the epidermal cells and upon experiments by which the lens function is eliminated. In the present paper the author criticizes some of Haberlandt 's conclusions and gives the results of his own researches on the subject. He notes first of all the efficiency of the lens cells in question by pointing out that in many leaves they are able to form clear images of objects focussed through them, which may be easily seen under the microscope and can be photographed. The following is a slightly abridged account of the author's own summary : Haberlandt 's hypothesis is open to criticism both on morphological and on physiological grounds. The phenomenon of convergence of light by the cells of plants is of very widespread occurrence. Not only the epidermal cells of leaves, but all cells which through turgidity assume a spherical or cylindrical form are capable of bringing it about. The cells of the lower as well as the upper epidermis are in most cases capable of light convergence. Special lens cells and lens- shaped thickening of the cuticle often occur on the lower epidermis. The position of the lens-shaped thickening of the cuticle in Garry a elliptica, which occurs on both sides of the leaf, has no relation to the position of the epidermal cells. According to the form and outline of the cell the rays of light may be converged to a local point, a focal line, or to an irregular figure inter- mediate between these. Cells with very irregular outlines, such as Eranthis hyemalis, commonly have more than one series of converging rays, each producing a bright spot of light. Cylindrical cells which bring rays to a focal line are present on some orthotropic organs, such as stalks of leaves, pedicels of flowers, and hypocotyls of seedlings. Papillate cells and lens-shaped thickenings are found on leaves which are not heliotropically sensitive. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 263 The extent to which the phenomenon of hght convergence is simply a result of cell-turgor and not an adaptation to light perception cannot be definitely determined, but it is suggested that the curvature of the lens cells of the epidermis may be found to bear some relation to the thickness of the cell-wall and cuticle. It is possible that this turgidity may be the starting-point for an adaptation to (1) either light perception, or, as Haberlandt suggests, to (2) the more efficient illumination of the chlorophyll grains, or (3) both; but the evidence is not very conclusive. The papillate epidermal cells of petals exhibit a very pronounced convergence of light, with a clear differentiation on the basal wall of a central bright area. It is only in very few leaves, where the cells are highly papillate or where there is a well-marked local thickening of the cuticle, that we get the differential illumination of the basal wall required by Haberlandt 's hypothesis. In some it is not visible at all under any conditions, in others only when a small stop is used, and in a large number of leaves (probably the majority) there is no differential illumina- tion as defined by Haberlandt. The experiments which have been made upon the elimination of the lens function by submerging the leaves in water, or by covering them with a layer of paraffin oil, have given results which are so contradictory and unsatisfactory that a much more complete investigation is necessary. In a few special cases, the lens cells appear to bring about a concentra- tion of the light on the chlorophyll grains. In some leaves the general arrangement of the lens cells with respect to the chlorophyll grains seems to indicate that they are effective in promoting a more efficient illumina- tion of the chlorophyll grains. Haberlandt suggests that the stimulus may be brought about by the difference in pressure exerted by the light upon the cytoplasm ; but this is so very slight that it is hardly probable it can be effective. There seems to be no good reason why the epidermal cells should be the percipient cells more than the chlorophyll-containing cells, except that the presence of chlorophyll would interfere with the incidence of the light upon the percipient protoplasm. There is, however, some evidence that the perception of light is bound up with its absorption by the chlorophyll grains, in which case the palisade cells would be the percipient cells, and the chlorophyll grains with the cytoplasm in con- nexion with them the actual percipient organs. The evidence for this is as follows : The heliotropic response depends mainly upon the quality of the light and not upon its intensity ; the rays which are active are those which are absorbed by the chlorophyll — of these the more refrangible rays are the most important ; if it were merely the intensity and not the quality of the light there seems to be no reason why the red and yellow rays should not be just as active as the blue and violet rays ; in the more refractive half of the spectrum the amount of light absorption is greatly in excess of that required for assimilation ; when a chlorophyll screen is interposed between the leaves and the light the heliotropic response either ceases altogether or is much reduced; in motile organisms, such as Euglena, the heliotactic response is bound up with 2C4 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. the absorption of light by the pigment-spot; in the large majority of animal eyes the presence of a layer of pigment in connexion with the actual percipient organs seems to be necessary; light exerts a very dehnite stimuhis upon the chlorophyll bodies of some Algae and foliage leaves, resulting in their movement into positions in which they can be more effectively illuminated (why should not a similar stimulus bring about the orientation of the leaf itself if the chlorophyll grains are capable of movement?); the rays absorbed by the chlorophyll, which are func- tional in heliotropism, are the chemically active rays; chemical changes taking place in the chlorophyll would afford a more satisfactory explana- tion of the origin of the stimulus than the pressure of light upon the cyijoplasm. With the exception possibly of the few special cases in which the light is concentrated upon the chlorophyll grains, there is no satisfac- tory evidence to show that the lens-shaped cells or local cuticular thickenings can be regarded as special adaptations, either for light perception or for the more efficient illumination of the chlorophyll grains, although it is possible they may be of use for both purposes. — A. D. C. Peridermium Strobi, the Blister of Weymouth Pine. By Dr. W. Somerville (Quart. Jour, of Forestry, vol. iii. 3, p. 232). — The author considers that, owing to the prevalence of this disease, the Weymouth pine in this country is almost doomed. Pinus Cembra is rarely seriously affected, but other young five-leaved pines, particularly P. Strohus and P. monticola, are destroyed wholesale. P. Lamhertiana and P. excelsa are also attacked. The spores of the form of the fungus which attacks the pine, known as Peridermium Strohi, are produced in enormous numbers and in great masses on the bark in April and May, and these spores attack species of Eibes, producing fructifications on the leaves of these plants in July. This form (the teleutospore stage) is known as Cronartium ribicola. The author considers that the only thing to do in this country is to stop the cultivation of five-leaved pines, and counsels the authorities of Canada and U.S.A. to prohibit the importation of five-leaved pines and species of Bibes, so as to prevent the spread of the disease to America, where it is at present unknown. — F. J. C. Pharmaceutical Institute of the Berlin University. (Not. Konig. Bat. Berlin, No. 45, vol. v. pp. 115-121). — (A) Caoutchouc from East Africa. Samples of sap were examined : Landolphia Kirkii contained 78'14 per cent, pure caoutchouc, L. florida 15'33 per cent. ; but better results would probably be obtained by improved methods of tapping and treatment. L. parvifolia contained 75'2 per cent, resin and 13'6 per cenu. caoutchouc, and is of little commercial value. (B) Sap of Euphorbia Tirucalli contains little rubber, but may prove a useful substitute for mastic. (C) Oil from the seed of Mimusops javensis (?). This fat melts at 40^ C, and yields, on saponification, 96'66 per cent, fatty acids and NOTES AND ABSTRACTS . 265 S'08 per cent, glycerine. It has a considerable commercial value, and may be used for cooking. (D) Eesin from " Bror " from the Pelew Island " Korror." The resin from the tree called Bror is well adapted for the preparation of varnish or furniture polish. Listrostachys B eJinickiana is an improved L. pellucida, with large flowers, pure white inside. — S. E. W. Phosphatic Manures. By C. G. Hopkins (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Illinois, Circ. 127; Jan. 1909). — The author shows that finely ground rock phosphate (' ' floats ' ') has in Illinois and other States given results as good as (and when cost is taken into consideration, better than) those obtained through the use of acid phosphate (superphosphate) when the manure has been used with a sufficient amount of organic matter in the soil and the results computed over a series of years. In the case of the return from a crop in the first year only, the super- phosphate gave the better results. A warning is uttered rega.rding the continued export of phosphatic rock, which is now proceeding at the rate of over a million tons per annum, worth at the mine about £1,250,000. The future of American agriculture depends largely on the supply of phosphatic manures, and the danger of trusts and unhmited export is emphasized. — F. J. C. Pineapple Growingr in Porto Rico. By H. C. Hemicksen and M. J. Jones [U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Porto Rico, Bull. 8, April 1909; plates). — The pineapple has certain well-defined likes and dislikes, and every part of the island of Porto Eico does not possess a soil which is equally suited to its cultivation. The plant will sometimes thrive, however, in theoretically unsuitable localities, so that no one should hesitate to attempt its growth in any part of the island so long as he is willing to pay proper attention to its after-management. It is impor- tant to avoid importing infected stock, as has been done so often in the past, to the danger of the whole industry in Porto Eico, and the planter should also always be prepared to fight the various diseases and pests to which the plants are liable. This bulletin gives an illustrated account of the pineapple, describes its varieties and methods of cultivation, and gives advice on the treat- ment of diseases, on fertilization, and on the industry from the com- mercial point of view. — M. L. H. .Pine, New Disease. By E. Miinch and C. v. Tubeuf {Nat. Zeit. Land-Forst. viii. pp. 39-44; Jan. 1910). — Year-old needles of Scots Pine were found to be partially brown. This was traced to the action of a parasitic fungus, hitherto unrecorded; it is named Hendersonia acicola and belongs to the Sphaeropsideae, a group of the ' Fungi Imperfecta —PF. G. S. Pomologrical Statistics {La Pom. Frang., January 1910).— Printed form to collect information as to varieties of fruit: (1) Most 266 JOUENAL OF THE KOYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. cultivated in plains and valleys of the region. (2) Most cultivated in mountainous parts. (3) Varieties little cultivated, but deserving to be better known. (4) Varieties of most commercial importance in the district. (5) Varieties most generally exported abroad. (6) Varieties that resist best diseases, hard winters, and spring frosts in the district. (7) Varieties which in the district are remarkable for their vigour and hardness. (8) Varieties recognized in the district as being the most fertile. (9) Observations.— C. H. H. Populus nigra var. betutifolia. By S. A. Skan (Bot. Mag. tab. 8298). — Nat. ord. Salicaceae. Origin uncertain. Tree 30-85 ft. high. Leaves deltoid-rhomboid, 2|-4 in. long. Male catkins 1-2 in. long. Anthers red. — G. H. Potato Scab and Mercuric Chloride. By J. G. Gregory (Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., October 1909, p. 671). — Owing to seed potatos being expensive, scabby seed potatos were soaked for 1| hours in a 1-in-lOOO solution of corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride) ; the resulting crop was perfectly cleau. Land infected with scab germs will still be infectious after keeping potatos out of the ground for three years. By ploughing in heavy crops of green stuff and making the land slightly acid, the scab germs are apparently killed. The writer having followed this American advice, ploughed in two heavy crops of greenstuff and allowed time for the last to thoroughly rot, and grew really clean potatos. C. H. H. Potato-spraying- Experiments in 1908. By F. Stewart, Y. French, and F. Sirrine (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. New York, Bull. 311).— The results of the seventh year's work in a ten-year series of potato- spraying experiments begun in 1902 are given. The experiments described are of three kinds : (1) Official ones at the Geneva Experi- ment Station; (2) farmers' business experiments; (3) volunteer experi- ments. The results are given in tabulated form and concern merely the spraying with Bordeaux mixture as a protection against blight and rot, but in all the experiments all the rows, including the unsprayed " check " rows, were dressed also with Paris green to control insects. The figures given are compiled to show what was the relative yield of the sprayed and unsprayed rows and what was the economic result — setting the cost of the processes against the increased profit. The results show that spraying is certainly an advantage to the crop, especially in dry seasons, and out of fourteen business experiments nine showed a financial profit and five a loss from the practice. M. L. H. Potatos, Rye, and Clover, Further Results in a Rotation of. By H. J. Wheeler and G. E. Adams {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Rhode I., Bull 135 ; May 1909). — This bulletin gives a continuation of the description of the three-year rotation, an acount of which, during two courses, is to be found in Bulletin No. 74.-7. G. J. NOTES AND ABSTKACTS. 26? Potatos, Seed, Destruction of Blight Fungrus by Heat. By 1). McAlpine (Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., November 1909, p. 700).— ' If the seed tubers are suspected, or in order to make certain that the fungus is destroyed, they may be sterihzed. The ordinary steriUzing of the surface will not serve the purpose, for the fungus is inside the potato; but Jensen has devised an effective method of treatment. This consists in subjecting the seed potatos to a dry heat at a temperature of 120° F., not allowing it to fall below 118° nor to rise above 132°. I had some diseased potatos kept at a temperature of 110° F. for four hours, but afterw^ards they produced a luxuriant crop of the fungus in twenty-four hours, while at 120° the spawn of the fungus was destroyed. I have had an apparatus constructed consisting of a copper cylinder, with a movable basket inside capable of containing a bushel of potatos, and surrounded by a jacket of water kept, when necessary, at the proper temperature. After this treatment the germinating power of the tubers is rather improved than otherwise. " — C. H. H. Potatos, Seed, Disinfected by Formalin {Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., November 1909, p. 700). — Seed potatos may be simply disinfected by placing them in a loose bag and then steeping them in a solution of formalin for two hours. A 1-lb. bottle of the proper strength, costing Is. 6d., is added to 32 gallons of water, and, after stirring, it is ready for use. — C. H. H. Potatos, Sprain in {Jour. Bd. Agr., xvi. 1, p. 33; 8, p. 647).— When the potato is cut through the middle, brown spots, like the currants in a scone, show the presence of the disease. On cooking, the spots can be picked out like pellets. The cropping of the potatos is not affected, and the ailment is found in well-proportioned tubers. Some observers have found the haulm of the potato darkened and covered with a white scale when the tubers are beginning to be attacked. The ailment develops in the pit, and is often scarcely noticed in a crop before storing. Dry, hot seasons, gravelly and sandy soil appear to favour the disease. The experiments ' carried out at Kew, and the material submitted for examination, make it impossible to formulate a diagnosis of the disease. The most constant symptom is the presence of small, rust- coloured spots scattered in greater or less abundance throughout the flesh. Where mycelium is present in the tissue of the brown spots * ' winter rot " caused by Nectria solani (Eeinke) always develops. It is not at all probable that two distinct diseases presenting similar symptoms — rust-coloured spots — are present in potato tubers, and it would therefore appear that the disease is an incipient stage of " winter rot," which, for some reason, has been arrested in its preliminary stage. There is said to be the constant presence of an obscure organism accompanying " internal disease " in potatos, but for further information develop- ments must be awaited. — J. S. '266 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. PotatOS, The Greening- of. By George Massee (Jozir. Bd. Agr. xvi. 3, p. 177; 1 plate). — Experiments have been conducted at Kew for the purpose of ascertaining in what particular manner greening " proves beneficial in potatos intended for seed. The experiments show (1) that a potato not greened " loses just over six times as much in weight during the season as a potato of equal weight that has been " greened " ; (2) that a potato " greened " in spring loses twice as much in weight as a potato " greened " imme- diately after lifting in autumn, other things being equal ; (3) " greening " in autumn will check the ravages of winter rot. — J. S. Primula Obconica, New Forms {Die Gart.; January 15, 1910, p. 34, with coloured plate). — Large flowering forms with pure white, crimson, red, and lilac flowers are figured, from Mr. George Arends, of Eonsdorf, Germany. — G. R. Properties and Uses of the Southern Pines. By H. S. Betts (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Forest Service, Giro. 164, Aug, 1909).— The three principal pines of the Southern United States are Pinus palustris, P. echinata, and P. Taeda. The enemies, mechanical properties, and utilization of these pines are here fully dealt with. — A. D. W. Raspberry Beetle (By turns unicolor). By W. H. Goodwin {U.S.A. Exj). Stn. New York, Bull. 202; February 1909; 3 plates).— The author gives a minute description of this destructive pest, which is closely allied to the European species B. tomentosus, and recom- mends spraying with 4 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water, just before the beetles emerge from the soil. In connection with this he suggests that thorough cultivation late in the fall, close up around the canes, will destroy large numbers of pupse. The result of experiments shows that the yield of berries in 1908 on sprayed plots was 50 bushels, against 22 bushels in 1907 on the same plots unsprayed. The illustrations on pp. 180-185 give a good idea of the damage done by the beetles to buds, berries, and young leaves. V. G. J. Red Spider, The Common {Tetranychus himaculatus Harvey) By F. H. Chittenden, Sc.D. {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. Entom., Giro. 104; January 1909; 4 figs.). — A detailed description is given of the hfe history, food plants, and distribution of the red spider, which is, properly speaking, not a spider, but a spinning mite. The author then proceeds to discuss the relative merits of kerosene soap emulsion, lye-sulphur, sulphur water, and lime-sulphur for the destruction of the pest, and summarizes the remedies as follows: — • For the greenhouse and general use, sulphur and neutral (Castile) soap, whale oil, and other soap solutions, kerosene soap emulsion, and spraying with water. For the treatment of trees and shrubs, the same as the above, with the addition of resin wash and the lime-sulphur and lye-sulphur mixtures. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 269 For truck and garden plants, lye-sulphur wash and the same remedies as for the greenhouse, with the addition of clean gardening or farming, early fall ploughing, keeping down weeds, and crop rota- tion where practicable. — V. G.J. Respiration of the Orgrans of Vascular Plants. By G. Nicolas (Ann. Sc. Nat. vol. x. Nos. 1-3, pp. 113). — In normal respiration (N) the leaves of a plant have greater respiratory intensity and a lower respiratory quotient than the petiole, stem, and root. Bespiratory intensity is defined as the oxygen absorbed by 1 gram of material an CO hour. The respiratory quotient, , is obtained by dividing the carbonic acid liberated per gram per hour by the oxygen absorbed per gram per hour. The intramolecular respiration (I) was determined by observing the gaseous changes which ensue when different parts of a plant are placed in an atmosphere which does not contain any oxygen. Under these conditions the leaves do not liberate more carbonic acid than other parts of the plant. As a rule the leaves give off less carbonic acid than in ordinary air. generally approximates ^. A coating of vaseline on the lower surface of the leaves diminishes the normal respira- tion to ^ to y\-, but the transpiration is reduced from to -^^ of its normal value. Hence the author concludes that respiration takes place through the cuticle and transpiration through the stomata. Green leaves are slightly more active than etiolated leaves. — S. E. W. Rhizoctonia violaeea causing- a New Disease of Trees. By Dr. W. Somerville (Quart. Jour, of Forestry, vol. iii. 2, p. 134). — Eeports the occurrence of Rhizoctonia violaeea (the " copper web " fungus) on the roots and lower part of the stems of oaks and Scots pine, which were killed by it. The fungus has hitherto been known to attack lucerne, clover, potatos, carrots, mangolds, and crocuses, and causes considerable damage to them ; but until now it has not been recorded on trees. — F. J, C. Rhodazalea, New. (Jour. Soc. Nat. Hort. Fr. Aug. 1909, p. 487). — Messrs. Croux, who produced the hybrid known as Rhod- azalea Crouxii, are now showing a double variety of * Ehodazalea, ' produced by crossing Azalea mollis with Rhododendron ' Marie van Houtte.' Among their collection of Ehododendrons are several good new varieties — ' Mme. Emile Fessard,' ' Mme. Yvonne Delchelpe,' * M. Emile Salacroup,' etc. — M. L. H. Rhododendron Keiskei. By W. B. Hemsley (Bot. Mag. tab. 8300). — Nat. ord Ericaceae; tribe Rhodoreae. Japan. Shrub 3-7 ft. high. Leaves biennial, coriaceous, 1^-3 in. long. Flowers yellow^ lf-2 in. across. — G. H. Rhododendrons, Chinese-Thibetan. (From the Bull. Soc. Nat. d'Acdimat. Fr.) (Jour. Soc. Nat. Hort. Fr. Nov. 1909, p. 696).— 270 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. M. de Yilmorin has succeeded in flowering for the first time in Europe some rare and valuable rhododendrons from the mountains of Su-Tchuen, in the north-west of Ichang, and a short description of them is here given. — M. L. H. Rhodora canadensis (Rhododendron). By E. Eothe (Die Gart. ; February 19, 1910, p. 86). — A pretty shrub, with deciduous oblong leaves, whitish beneath. The flowers are small, and pro- duced in umbellate clusters. The author describes the remark- able and pretty effects these flowering shrubs make ; ordinarily they grow in the regions of Northern Canada in low boggy places in great numbers, surrounded by the graceful but monotonous white barked birch, and higher up the sombre pine and fir tree. It is one of the first of spring flowers when the snow has not quite disappeared, and it is a most delightful sight to see the groups of Rhodora still without foliage in these surroundings. In England during a mild winter Bhodora flowers in February and March, otherwise not till April. G. R. Rodg-ersiapinnata. By W. Irving (Garden, Oct. 30, 1909, p. 531 and fig.). — This is the most handsome of the Eodgersias, grow- ing about 5 feet high; it is later in starting than R. podophylla, but lasts longer in perfection, and the leaves are not so liable to sunburn. The Eodgersias are excellent for the moist and shady parts of the rock-garden; seedlings are freely produced, but slow in 'developing. T. Smith (Garden, Nov. 13, 1909, p. 551) considers R. fodophylla still without a peer in respect of leaf -colouring. The leaves develop a purple-crimson colour in July, and in autumn exhibit the brightest leaf -colouring to be found among herbaceous plants. — H. R. D. Roots, Anatomy of. By Hermann von Alten (Bot. Zeit. Ixvii. 1 Abt. Heft x./xi. Oct. 1909, pp. 175-199, with 2 plates and 8 figs.).— The author criticizes Tschirch's researches on root-structure, and lays stress on the difference in that of young roots as compared with older ones. He distinguishes annexation (Bereicherungs) and nourishment (Ernakrungs) roots. There are also remarks on the number of xylem groups in one and the same root-system and on the hypodermis, and on exogenous cork-building in roots. — G. F. S.-E. Rosa Seraphini. By J. F. (Garden, Dec. 11, 1909, p. 599).— This rose was introduced in 1900. Its peculiar beauty for the rock- garden is rightly insisted on. It is a mountain-rose from Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, and found above 1,600 feet high in the Apuan Alps. Two varieties of it are found in the Maritime Alps. It flowers profusely while only 12 to 15 inches high, and the thorny stems are furnished with numerous short shoots, each terminating in a bright rose flower 1-^ inches in diameter. A little bush thus gets quickly covered with brightly coloured miniature flowers that associate well with the numerous occupants of the rockery. The leaves are 1^ to NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 271 2 inches long, made up of seven leaflets. From a spectacular point of view it is far more effective than hundreds of subjects considered appropriate for this form of gardening. — H. R. D, Rose Chafer {Macrodactylus suhsjyinosus Fab.). By F. H. Chittenden {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. Entom., Circ. 11, revised July 1909 ; 1 fig.). — This circular deals with the immense damage done to crops in various parts of the United States by the rose chafer, which, according to Harris, confined its ravages to the blossoms of the rose when first noticed. In later years it has extended its range of food plants until now it is nearly omnivorous. The grape vine and rose especially suffer from its depredations, but it is almost equally destructive to fruit, shade, and forest trees. The beetles consume blossoms, leaves, and fruit, and it is no uncommon sight to see every young apple on a tree completely covered with a sprawling, struggling mass of beetles. Almost every method employed against other insects has been tried without avail, and compounds of copper, lime, and kerosene have failed to kill the rose chafer, and a thoroughly successful remedy has yet to be discovered for the extermination of the pest. — V. G. J. Rose Slug's. By F. H. Chittenden {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. Entom., Circ. 105; October 1908; 5 figs.). — The circular deals with the life history, distribution, and extermination of the three species of saw flies, the larvse of which do considerable damage to the foliage of roses in the gardens of the United States. Figures 1 and 2 represent the American rose slug (Endelomyia rosae). The larvae feed chiefly at night, and always on the upper surface of the leaves. When full grown they descend into the earth and construct a cell or cocoon, where they remain till the following spring. Figures 3 and 4 show the second species, the bristly rose-slug {Gladius pectinicornis Fourer), which is of European origin and is pretty generally distributed in many parts of the United States, Eng- land, and Scotland. The larva in its earliest stage skeletonizes the leaves, but with increased growth it eats large, irregular holes, frequently leaving nothing but the stronger ribs. It forms a cocoon upon the plants on the surface of the ground. Figure 5 shows the coiled rose slug {Emphytus cinctus L.), also a European introduction. The larva differs from the other two in devouring the entire substance of the leaf. Upon reaching maturity it bores into the pith of the stems of dead rose bushes or other available plants, where the pupal stage is passed. — V. G. J. Roses, Notes on the Newer. By H. E. Molyneux {Garden, Sept. 11, 1909, p. 444 et seq.). — The writer includes in his subject roses introduced from' 1906 to 1909. Good roses, with few exceptions, get into general cultivation in about three years. Sept. 18, p. 458, the H.P.s are dealt with; six are considered, and three — W. H. '27"2 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Walsh,' 'Mrs. A. M. Kirker, ' and 'Urania' — are recommended as worth a trial. The H.T.s are considered in nine numbers (Sept. 25, p. 469, to Dec. 4, p. 589), no fewer than seventy-seven varieties being described and criticized. On Dec. 11, p. 602^ the Teas are dealt with. This class is gradually improving in constitution, but a severe winter will generally play more or less havoc with them. Good Teas are still scarce, and the writer only includes fifteen varieties, of which * Molly Sharman Crawford ' and ' W. E. Smith ' are specially com- mended. On Dec. 25, p. 629, the Wichuraianas are dealt with, six varieties being selected. — H. R. D. Rudbeckia, a New Annual Variety. {Jour. Soc. Nat. Hort. Fr. Sept. 1909, p. 517). — Messrs. Vilmorin-Andrieux have produced a practically annual variety of Rudbeclcia hirta, which bears immense single yellow flowers possessing the useful peculiarity of remaining fresh for several weeks, even under a hot sun. — M. L. H. Sapium, Mexican and Central American Species of. By H. Pittier {Contr. fr. U.S.A. Herh. xii. (1909); pt. 4; plates).— Nine species, six of them new, of this genus of rubber-producing plants are described and figured. The value of the present species as rubber- producing plants has not yet been sufficiently tested. — F. J. C. Saprophytes, Javanese. Thismia javanica. By A. Ernst, G. Bernard and J. J. Smith (Ann. Jard. Bot. Buit. viii. series ii. pp. 20-62 ; 9 plates). — Thismia javanica is a small saprophyte, found near Buitenzorg growing in a mass of humus at the foot of a tree, Lansium domesticum. Only the flower-buds appear above the surface of the soil. The plant has numerous white roots, emitting adventitious buds. The peduncle bears one or two flowers, having three triangular sepals of a pale orange colour and three denticulate petals terminating in long threadlike subulate appendices, also orange-coloured. The leaves are very rudimentary. — S. E. W. Sarracenia and Cephalotus (Beih. Bot. Centralbl. xxv. 2. Abt. Heft 3, pp. 490-539; December 1909; with 58 text figs.).— Dr. Josef Schweiger (Miinchen) compares the microscopic structure of the roots, leaves, pitchers, pollen, and ovule in these genera. The details of stomata, hairs, and glands, &c., are very thoroughly com- pared, and for the most part figured. The development of the ovule in each is also contrasted. He finds that the differences are far more numerous than the resemblances, and especially that the development of ovules and seeds are very dissimilar. He concludes that there is no systematic relationship between the two forms, in spite of the apparent similarity of their pitchers. — O. F. S.-E. Sawfly, The Yellow-Horned or Plum Fruit. By Dr. E. Stewart MacDougall {Jour. Bd. Agr., xvi. 5, p. 385; 1 plate). Description. — Imago. — The adult saw-fly measures about J inch in length and ^ inch in spread of wings. Colour, black. Antennae, NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 273 bright yellow, or yellow-red, often brown at the tip. Wings are clear like water. Egg. — Greenish white and translucent. Larva.— A twenty-legged caterpillar, the abdominal prolegs being somewhat paler than the six thoracic legs; the body is wrinkled and whitish yellow, with a faint brown shade in older larvae; the head is brown; the jaws are red-brown; the eyes are black; the body narrows at the hind end. The larvse have an unpleasant odour. Cocoon. — The cocoon, under cover of which pupation takes place, is cylindrical, brown, and covered with particles of soil. The life-history of the sawfly is given in this article, and it would appear that the egg is laid in the flower-bud in the spring, the larva subsequently eating its way to the kernel of the stone. The cocoon is made in soil in June and July, and in this cover the winter is passed. Fruits readily fall from the tree when infested, and they should be collected and destroyed at once before the larvse leave them. The soil below infested trees should be worked and the turned-up layers beaten. — J. S. Saxifrag-a madida. By J. F. {Garden, Nov. 6, 1909, p. 538).— This is a new Saxifrage intermediate between S. Fortunei and S. cor- tusaefolia. It is autumn flowering, white, and forms a large pyramidal panicle. It is the first of the three to flower, S. cortusaejolia not being many days behind, and S. Fortunei ten or twelve days later. — H. R. D. Seedling's, Transpiration of {Bat. Gaz. vol. xlviii. pp. 275- 282, October 1909 ; with 5 figs.). — Seedlings of various plants were grown in a saturated atmosphere in a greenhouse (rel. humidity 60 per cent.), and in room (rel. humidity 16 to 32 per cent.), and the differences in transpiration recorded. The ratio of the trans- piration of moist-air leaves to that of dry-air leaves of the same species varied from 2*2 to 10. Much individual variation was found. The plants from moist air were taller, more slender, longer-leaved, less hairy, with thinner, lighter-coloured, and more translucent leaves. The leaf thickness was 25 to 40 per cent, greater in the dry- air plants. In very moist air the leaves of Sinapis and Cucumis are less indented on the margin. The stomata of moist-air plants could not close so efficiently or quickly as those of the dry-air plants. Young plants of Ipomoea were, however, soon able to adapt themselves to dry- air conditions. — G. F. S.-E. ■ . Siparuna thea. By E. Gilg and H. Strauss (Not. Konig. Bot. Berlin, 45, vol. v. Nov. 7, 1909, pp. 113-114).— The plant described by Seeman {Journ. of Bot. II. (1864), p. 343) as Citriosma thea, and afterwards named Siparuna thea by De Candolle, flowered for the first time in 1909 when planted in the border of the Colonial House of the Botanical Garden in Dahlem. It had previously been grown in tubs. The charaoterist'ic flowers and leaves show that it does not VOL. XXXVI. T 274 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. belong to the order of Monimiaceae. The authors describe it as Campomanesia thea. — S. E. W . Sodium as a Partial Substitute for Potassium. By B. L. Hartwell and F. E. Pember {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Rhode L, 21st Ann. Rept. part 2 (1908); pp. 243-285; plates). — Experiments on the replacement of potassium by sodium in continuation of those already reported (see Journal E.H.S. xxxiv. p. 594) are discussed. It is concluded that sodium is able to replace potassium in certain of its functions but not in all, and that in the principal functions of potas- sium, sodium cannot replace it. Thus, unless a sufficient amount of potassium is present to enable these functions to be performed maximum growth cannot be secured. Less potassium, however, is absorbed when that element is supplemented by sodium than when it is not, so that sodium acts as a conserver of potassium. — F. J. C. Soil Fertility. By Thomas F. Hunt (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Pensyl- vania, Bull. 90; March 1909; 13 tab., 7 charts). — A series of experi- ments with fertilizers has been conducted for twenty-five years on a clay loam soil of limestone origin. The series consists of four tiers of 36 plats each in a rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat, and hay (mixed timothy and clover). Fertihzers were employed in alternate years, viz. to the corn and wheat. Of the three essential fertilizing ingredients, nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid, only the latter produced any increase of yield when used alone. A much larger increase was obtained by using both potash and phosphoric acid. There is no evidence thus far to show that the supply of nitrogen cannot be definitely maintained on this limestone soil by means of a rotation containing clover, provided the mineral fertilizers are abundantly supplied. The addition, however, of 24 lb. of nitrogen an acre to the mineral fertilizers has resulted in a material increase in yield ; greater quan- tities of nitrogen produced very little effect. Nitrate of soda has proved a better form of nitrogen than dried blood or sulphate of ammonia; the continuous application of the latter caused acidity in the soil. It has been possible during twenty-five years to maintain the crop -producing power of the soil without the use of any yard manure. — V. G. J. Soil Nitrogen. By Henry G. Knight and Frank A. Smith (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Wyoming, Bull. 82; June 1909; 4 figs., 1 plate).— The bulletin deals with the chemical and mechanical conditions that go to make a fertile soil, and describes the several classes of nitrifying bac- teria which work upon the organic nitrogen present in the soil. Results are given of experiments in fertilizing with legumes and nitrate of soda.— F. G. J. Soils, Absorption by. By H. E. Patten and W. H. Waggaman (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. Soils, Bull. 52, Aug. 1908).— This bulletin NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 275 gives, first, a summary of the results obtained by other scientific investigators into this subject, and concludes with an account of the experiments carried on in the laboratory of the Department of Agriculture at Washington. The subject is important in view of practical soil work, the manufacture of fertilizers, and for various technical processes. The ' principal object of the work has been to determine how absorption controls the concentration of the soil solution, which is the great nutrient medium upon which plants feed, and, further, to determine its effect upon the structure of the solid portion of the soil in modifying its power to hold and maintain the soil solution for the continued use of the plant. It has been shown that a number of modifying factors enter into each particular case, which make it impracticable to formulate a simple general law which will account quantitatively for the distribution of a dissolved substance between the liquid solution and the absorbing medium. The nature of these modifying factors has been the subject of careful investigation, the results of which are here recorded. The most important of these factors is the change in the physical character of the soil itself conse- quent upon the absorption of the dissolved materials, which change, in turn, influences the drainage condition, the aeration of the soil, its capacity to hold the soil solution and control its movement through the soil, the composition of the soil solution, and the character and rate of the chemical changes taking place in the soil solution. In order to bring out clearly the general application of the pheno- mena of absorption and the general principles derived therefrom, a number of solvents (or pure liquids used to dissolve some solid, liquid, or gas), of solutes (or the substances dissolved by the solvent), and of absorbents, in addition to soils and constituents of the soil solution, have been studied. The establishment of these general phenomena, in the case of pure substances where no life processes enter, strengthens very greatly the certainty in their validity when they are found to hold good for such very complex materials as exist in soils and soil solutions. The bulletin gives tables of statistical results of successive soil analyses and descriptions of the apparatus and methods employed by different investigators. — M. L. H. Soy Beans. By 0. V. Piper and H. T. Nielsen (U.>S'. A. Dep. Agr., Faryn. Bull 372 ; October 1909 ; 6 figs.).— The bulletin, after describing the plant and its culture, deals with the importance of the soy bean as a forage crop and the food value of the meal for dairy cows. " In the trial for the comparison of soy-bean meal and cotton-seed meal the yield both of milk and butter fat was about 5 per cent, greater for soy-bean meal. " — V. G. J. Soy Bean (a Comparison with the Cow Pea). By Ohas. A. Mooers {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Tennessee, Bull. 82, Dec. 1908).— The T 2 276 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. soy bean and the cow pea resemble each other very closely, but the former has some marked advantages over the latter: — 1. It has an upright growth (not clinging). 2. More reliable as to fruitfulness under varying conditions. 3. Not harmed by slight frosts. 4. Eich in protein and oil; may even be substituted for cotton-seed meal. 5. Seed not attacked by weevils. 6. Beans ripen together, and may be cut and threshed (cow peas ripen irregularly and must be hand-picked). On the other hand (1) cow peas germinate more certainly, pro- ducing a better stand. They are not liable to heat and spoil in storing, like soy beans, and are not so much appreciated by rabbits; (2) when grown with sorghum and allowed to climb, they outyield soy beans in vine and fruit; (3) are much more easily cured by ordinary methods; (4) and will sometimes yield a second crop. — C. H. L. Strawberries for Dry Weather. (Jour. Soc. Nat. Hort. Fr. Sept. 1909, p. 516). — The varieties of strawberry known in France as * Saint- Joseph,' * Jeanne d'Arc,' ' Constante Feconde,' ' OyranO' de Bergerac,' * Souvenir Normand,' though producing small-sized fruit, are said to bear drought better than any other kinds. — M. L. H. Sug-ar Beet, Leaf-hoppers of. By E. D. Ball (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. of Entom., Bull. 66, part 4; Jan. 1909; plates). — Among the diseases of sugar beet is one called " curly leaf," but more than one form of the disease has been confused under the one name. The one with which this bulletin deals is characterized by the leaves becoming rough and warty and curling up, and by the beet becoming stunted. The plant does not recover in this case. The other form is characterized by the presence of numerous pale spots, and the edges turn down, but otherwise the leaf is smooth, and the injury is confined to the leaf attacked. The latter form is due to the attack of a species of Empoasca, the former to the attack of the beet leaf-hopper, Eutettix tenella. The insect, which is a native of the south-western States, belongs to the Hemiptera. It is a small, pale yellowish green species, very active in all stages. The nymphs are pale creamy white or coloured brown, &c., and the eggs, which are laid in the petiole, are white. It feeds on a variety of native plants allied to the beet. It is suggested that spraying with paraf&n emulsion as soon as the hoppers appear, with an attachment to the sprayer to turn the leaves over, or the use of a tarred board with an agitator to cause the insects to fly, would be the best means of destroying the pests. Eolling the ground while damp and in cool weather would also materially lessen the pests. Several other species of Eutettix and of Agallia feed on plants allied to the beet, and may possibly become troublesome pests of that plant. F. J. C. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 277 Sugrap-beet Varieties, Comparative Tests of. By J. E. W. Tracy and J. F. Eeed (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PI. hid., Circ. 37, Sept. 1909). — The tabulated results of tests which have been conducted at different stations in order to determine the ability of various strains and varieties of sugar beet to produce a paying crop under varying local conditions. The testing at each station was done under similar condi- tions and in the same manner, and all plots were planted as a farm crop, no care being taken to produce extra yield or. high sugar content that could not be secured in a general crop. — M. L. H. Syringra Bretsehneideri. By N. E. Brown (Bot. Mag. tab. 8292). Nat. ord. Oleaceae; tribe Syringeae. North China. Shrub 10 ft. or more in height. Leaves elliptic. Panicle 3-12 in. long, 3-6 in. wide, densely clustered at the nodes or at the tips of terminal branchlets. Corolla lilac-rose. ^ — G. H. Tamarisks for Inland Planting-. By E. Curgwen [Garden, Nov. 20, 1909, p. 564). — There are no grounds for the popular notion that this shrub can only be grown near the sea. The writer describes the ornamental character of the plant, with its feathery masses of apricot-coloured flowers. Several hardy varieties are mentioned. T. gallica, flowering from May to October, and the similar but finer T. tetranda are specially commended. — H. R. D. TeratolOgry, Tropical. By J. C. Costerus and J. J. Smith [Ayin. Jard. Bot. Buit., viii. series ii. pp. 1-17; 8 plates). — Deviations from normal growth in plants grown in the Buitenzorg Botanical Gardens are illustrated by sketches by Javanese draughtsmen. They include Caladium with split petiole, Colocasia affinis, Alocasia macror- rhiza, Carludovica palmata, Dendrobhun mutahile, D. Rumphianum, Rhyncosiylis retusa, PapJiiopedilum praestans, P. glaucophyllum, P. Chamberlainianu7n, Bidbopliyllum obscuruni, Coelogyne pandurata, Gloriosa Plantii, Musa sapientium, Telanthera philoxeroides, Hevea brasiliensis , Acalypha hispida, Begonia Rex, Caesalpina pidcherrima, and Calendula officinalis. — S. E. W. Thompsonella platyphylla, Rose. By N. L. Britton and J. N. Rose {Contr. fr. U.S.A. Nat. Plerb. xii (1909); pt. 9; pp. 391-392; plates). — A new genus of Crassulaceae is founded, named Thompsonella, to include the plant hitherto known as Echeveria minuti flora, now T. minutifiora, and the new T. platyphylla, with glaucous, fleshy leaves, 4 in. to 5 in. long and an inflorescence 8 in. to 9 in. in height. Native in Mexico.— F. J. C. Thrips, Coal-tar Water for. By C. French, jun. (Jour. Dep. Agr. Vict., November 1909, p. 771). — Boil 1 lb. coal tar in 2 gallons of water, and while hot add from 50 to 100 gallons of water. This spray acts as a deterrent to thrips. It may be also used on cabbage, cauli- flower, turnip, and radish plants. — C. H. H. 278 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Timber of Togroland. By G. Volkens {Not. Konig. Bot. Berlin, Appendix xxii. No. 2, Nov. 7, 1909, pp. 33-42; 4 figs.).— The trees in Togoland of commercial value are given in order of merit : Chloro- phora excelsa, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Erythrophloeum guineense, Khaya Klainii and seyiegalensis, Dalhergia melanoxylon, Piptadenia Kerstingii, Detarium senegalense, Anogeinus leiocarpiis, Mimusops multmervis, Butyrospervium Parkii, Prosopis ohlo7iga, Dialiuvi guineense, Lophira alata, Terminalia dictyoneura and macroptera, Viospyros mespiliformis, Mitragyne viacrophylla, Limonia Warneckei, Parinarium ciiratellifolinyn. Dr. Kersting recommends as suitable for cabinet-makers, Pentadesma Kerstingii, Alhizzia Brownei, Lonchocar- pus sericeus, Burkea africdna, Pseudocedrela Kotschyi, and Parinarium Kerstingii. Cyanome.tra megalopliylla, Ormosia laxiflora, Afzelia africana, Grossopteryx ajrlcana, Adina microcephala, Cola laurifolia, and Faurea speciosa are specially deserving of notice. — S. E. W. Timber Supply of the United States. By E. S. Kellogg (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Forest Service, Circ. 166, July 1909).— This gives a good idea of, and insight into, the forest resources, the rate at which they are being cut, and the outlook for a future timber supply of the United States.— A. V. W. Timber Trees of Cameroon, The Tall. IV. By E. Gilg {Not. Konig. Bot. Berlin, 45, Nov. 18, 1909, pp. 123-131).— A hst of the trees of commercial value found in Cameroon. — aS*. E. W. Tobacco. By W. H. Scherffius {U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Kentucky, 20th Rept. {Bull. 129); 1907; plates).— Deals mainly with the methods the farmer may adopt to improve his tobacco crop by selection and the elimination of undesirable varieties. — F. J. C. Tobacco, Cig-ar-wrapper, under Shade in the Connecticut Valley. By J. B. Stewart (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PL' Ind., Bull. 138, Dec. 1908; plates). — The method of growing tobacco under the shade of tiffany tents originated in Florida about 1896. In 1900 the Connecticut Agr. Exp. Station and the Bureau of Soils of the U.S.A. Department of Agriculture conducted a joint experiment in this direction, and eventually tobacco was produced from Sumatra seed equal, if not superior, to any imported from the island of Sumatra. Great hopes of a new era of prosperity in Connecticut were immediately aroused, and the area devoted to the new industry rose from 41 acres in 1901 to 700 acres in 1902. Then came a bad season, the crop was a failure and many farmers were ruined. Those who were able to tide over till another season made one more effort to raise a paying crop, thinking that the poor quality of their tobacco had been due merely to the unfavourable season. The results were perhaps even more unsatis- factory than the previous year, and the wh^le industry was accounted a failure. The Bureau of Plant Industry now tooK tne matter up, and a series of breeding experiments proved that, as so often happens when seed NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 279 is transported from a warm climate to a colder one, tlie progeny had broken up into many varieties. In one field of 45 acres 29 distinctly different varieties were found and isolated. Every variety bred true to type, and of the 29 only two were found to possess any merit. This showed how the late failures had arisen, and during the last four years the shade-tobacco industry of Connecticut has been established upon a sound and profitable basis. The result of all experience so far seems to be that tobacco can be grown profitably in the Connecticut Valley if the grower will obtain a good strain of seed, sterilize his seed-beds, and attend to various cultural directions which are given in this pamphlet. — M. L. H. Togoland, Useful Plants of. Part II. By G. Volkens {Not. Konig. Bol. Berlin, Appendix xxii. pp. 42-64, Nov. 7, 1909; 13 figs.). — Textile fibres. Pandanaceae. Pandanus togoensis and P. Kerstingii bear long tough leaves, which are used in making mats. Palms. Raphia vinifera yields two kinds of fibres, piassive and bast. The former is dearer and less valuable than the fibre from Liberia. Phoenix spinosa bears fruit resembling dates, but smaller. The feathery leaves are dyed and woven into mats. The leaves of Elaeis guineensis are used for roofing huts. The husk of Cocos nucifera is valuable as coir, used for making ships' cables. The fibre is also made into cord, carpets, brushes, and woven into belting for machinery. Borassus flahelliformis yields a substitute for piassive, known as bassine. The leaves of Hyphaene togoensis are cut into strips and used in weaving mats, baskets, and hats. Gramineae. Zea Mays. The husks of the maize cobs are used for wrapping up fruit, for stuffing cheap mattresses, cushions, saddles, and chairs, and are of increasing value in paper manufacture. The centre of the cobs from which the corn has been separated is used for fodder, for the manufacture of celluloid, and as the material from which a kind of linoleum is prepared. Imperata cylindrica is used for covering huts. Saccharujn officinalis: the canes from which the juice has been extracted are sent to the paper mill. Rhytachne Kerstingii attains a height of 10 feet; the stalks are solid, and are used in making baskets. The empty panicles of Andropogon Sorghum, after the grain has been removed, are sold for besoms. Panicum sanguinale is woven into hats. The straw of Oryza sativa is used in paper manufacture. The ripe stalks of Pennisetum longisetum and P. purpureum are used for thatching. The roots of Aristida Adscensionis are made into brushes in India. The straw from Sporoholus indicus is bleached with the fumes from burning sulphur and woven into hats. The common reed Phragmites vulgaris is made into coarse mats, and is also, used for thatching and covering walls. Oxytenanthera ahyssinica is a valuable bamboo. The stalks of Flagellaria indica are extremely tough, and are used in place of rope. The fibres from the fresh leaves of Ananas sa sativa can probably be spun like cotton or silk. 280 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Liliaceae. Bowstring hemp is obtained from the leaves of Sanse- viera. A superior kind of bast is prepared from the leaf-stalks of Tacea pinnatifida. The large leaws of Aframonium are used for thatching. Coarse rope is made from the bark of species of Trema and Celtis. Ficus rokko, E^itada scandefis, Brachystegia appendiculata, Crotalaria retusa, Lannea Barteri, Paidlinia pinjiata, species of Corchorus, Triumfetta, Gewia, and many of the Malvaceae, including Hibiscus, are all sources of valuable fibre. Cotton is also cultivated in Togo. — S. E. W. Town Planting-. By A. D. Webster [Gard. Chron. xlv. (1909), pp. 220, 262, 400). — Trees and plants for town planting are dealt with by an experienced town-gardener. He points out that the tree that flourishes in one town may not be found suitable in another. While in London the London Plane is best, in Shefileld the Canadian Poplar takes first place, in Manchester the lime, and in colliery dis- tricts horse-chestnut and sycamore are important trees. Full direc- tions as to methods of planting, fencing and staking, and on the vexed question of the pruning of tow^n-trees, are given. — F. J. C. Transpiration and the Ascent of Water in Trees under Australian Conditions. By A. S. Ewart and B. Pvees (Ann. Bot. xxiv. January 1910, pp. 85-105). — The investigations Vv^ere undertaken to determine (1) the rate of transpiration under Australian conditions; (2) the rate of ascent of sap, more especially in Eucalyptus trees ; (3) the length and diameter of the wood-vessels ; (4) the condition of the con- ducting tissue during transpiration; and (5) the maximal and average resistances to flow in functioning stems. An abridged account of the summary given by the authors is as follows : — The rate of evaporation for each square metre of leaf-surface from cut branches, whether placed in water or not, is always less than from a plant rooted in the soil under otherwise similar conditions. When the air is hot and dry the evaporation from a free surface of water under- goes an enormous increase, but that from a living plant undergoes a regulatory decrease, and may be only one-sixth as active as the former. Under optimal conditions a rooted plant of Eucalyptus corynocalyx may lose 396 grams of water for each square metre of .transpiring leaf- surface an hour, whereas the maximum rate for Dracaena Draco was 17*6 grams. Cut trees always absorb water at a less rate than rooted ones evaporate it. The maximum rate of ascent of sap noted was 12'3 metres an hour (Eucalyptus viminalis) and 6'5 metres an hour (E. amygdalina), whereas in cut branches of Eucalyptus it rarely exceeded 1 to 2 metres an hour. Single vessels may run nearly from end to end of the main trunk in young Eucalyptus and Acacia trees several metres high, but only a very small fraction exceed half the main trunk in length. In the branches the vessels are shorter and narrower. The existence of a rapid trans- piration current appears to favour the development of broad vessels, but not to affect their length. NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 281 Branches containing air taken from actively transpiring trees show a much greater resistance to flow than when saturated with water ; and with increasing heads the rate of flow does not increase proportionately. A coloured liquid will rise slowly in a saturated stem kept in a saturated atmosphere, but a somewhat slower ascent is shown after the stem has been killed, so that the phenomenon is not the result of any vital pumping action, and must be capable of physical explanation, although in a saturated stem it cannot be due to capillarity or imbibition, and is too rapid to be the result of diffusion. No appreciable rise of sap took place in a tree devoid of its leaves, but a pumping action may only be excited when the leaves are exerting suction on the water in the wood. — A . D. C. Tuberous Solanums, New Examples of Mutation in. {Rev. Hort., Dec. 16, 1909, p. 562). — The wild Solanum Commersonii in the hands of M. Planchon, of the Montpelier University, after four years' constancy to type, produced tubers of two kinds, viz. normal and much larger ones about -^-pound weight, of a yellowish colour, with deep eyes and smooth skin, thus displaying a great modification. Both sets oi tubers being planted, the apparently normal ones pro- duced plants differing 'slightly from the wild type, " demi-mut^es, " while the others yielded quite different plants, completely resembling S. tuberosum. Dr. Haeckel, of Marseilles, reports that continued experiments with S. Maglia have resulted in the production of varied tubers tending more and more towards those of the cultivated S. tubero- sum. The results, though two species were concerned, were practically identical as resembling those of a third. — C. T. D. Tulips, A New Race of Branchingr. By Eev. J. Jacob (Garden, Nov. 13, 1909, p. 554 and fig.). — This race of branching tulips was obtained by Mons. Clermont Ferrard. It has from three to five flowers on the main stem. — H. R. D. Turnips, Increase in Weig^ht of. By G. Eiviere and Y. Bail- hache {Jour. Soc. Nat. Hort. Fr. Nov. 1909, p. 652).— Tabulated results of experiments, showing the comparative weight of turnips at different stages of growth, noted with the leaves and without, at certain stated intervals; tbe idea being to ascertain at what period of the growth of the plant any added nourishment is taken up by the foliage and when by the root. — M. L. H. Ulmus eampestris {Die Gart. 65, p. 776). — A very interesting specimen, said to be considerably over 1,000 years old; is found near the village of Schimscheim, in the Ehine district. It has a circum- ference of 15*5 metres, known by the peculiar name of The Eathhaus (Townhall), owing to the fact that during the summer the representa- tives of the village assemble here and discuss the local affairs. — G. R. Vaccinium, Species of. By W. J. Bean {Gard. Chron. xlv. (1909), pp. 49, 74, and 83). — The species of Vaccinium that have 282 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. been introduced to this country are described, and notes upon their distribution, habitats, and habits are given at length. A few of those introduced, such as Vaccinium glauco-alhum, are hardy only in the most favoured localities in Great Britain, but most may be grown where leaf -mould is available and lime absent from the soil, though all prefer sandy peat and a moist position, and are worthy of cultiva- tion for the generally neat, close habit, handsome fruits, and frequently rich autumnal colouring. The nearly allied cranberries, species of Oxy coccus, and Chiogenes serj)yllifolia (the creeping snowberry) form the subject of a further article on p. 99. — F. J. C. Velvet Bean and its History, The Florida. By K. S. Bort (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. Plant, hid., Bull. 141, part iii. ; May 1909; 3 plates, 1 fig.). — The bulletin contains good illustrations and much documentary evidence on the subject of the history of the velvet bean, stated to be the most important leguminous forage crop grown in Florida.— y. G. J. Veronica Chamaedrys, Tubers on. By J. E. Blomfield and E. J. Schwartz (Ann. Bot. xxiv. January 1910, pp. 35-43; 1 plate). — A morphological and cytological account of the life-history of the myxomycete Sorosphaera veronicae. The swelliugs were found on the stems, leaves and petioles. Infection apparently takes place in the region of the growing point. When the invasion is extensive the whole shoot is modified; but when less the growing point frees itself and a tumour is formed on the side of the stem. Sorosphaera resembles Plasmodiophora in its method of growth and also in nuclear details. A Plasmodium-like structure is formed in the host-cells, and this ultimately gives rise to a crop of sorospheres (spore- masses). The Plasmodium is not formed by an aggregation of amoebae, but from the growth of a single spore. The infected areas increase in size by the division of already infected cells. — A. D. C. Viburnum Carlesii (Gard. Chron. xlv. (1909), pp. 341 and 361; fig.). — The history of this beautiful Chinese Viburnum, quite hardy in this country, is given, with notes upon its behaviour in cultivation at Kew.—F. J. C. Wahlenbergia, Species of. By T. Smith (Gard. Chron. xlv. (1909), p. 243; figs.). — The author describes the species and varieties of Wahlenhergia suitable for cultivation in the rock-garden, and gives hints upon their cultural requirements, insisting upon the need for directing water to the roots of the plants and preventing it from remaining upon the foliage, especially in winter and spring. — F. J. C. White Fly (Aleyrodes citri, &c.). By E. W. Berger (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Florida; Rept. 1908; pp. 48-58). — Fungi for the suppression of this pest on citrus trees have been successfully distributed, and it is concluded that the insects themselves carry the fungus to other NOTES AND ABSTRACTS. 283 localities. It was found that the insects excrete a considerable quantity of honeydew, and that certain species of ladybird, lacewing flies, etc., frequently feed upon them. The fungi (see p. 68, et seq.) found to attack the white fly are Asc}ierso7iia aleyrodis, A. flavo-citrina, Sphaerostilhe coccophila, Verti- cillium heterocladum, Microcera sp. and an unrecognized brown fungus. F. J. C. White Fly Studies in 1908. By E. W. Berger, Ph.D. (U.S.A. Exp. Stn. Florida, Bull. 97; February 1909; 19 figs.).— ' Among the natural enemies of insects are fungi, bacteria, and predaceous insects. Bacterial diseases of the white fly are at present unknown, but the known fungus diseases of this insect are seven in number." The bulletin gives an interesting account of the white fly (Aleyrodes citri), and describes the methods of combating it by means of infecting its larvae with the spores of the parasitic fungi. — V. G. J. White Pine Bligrhts, Present Status of the. By P. Spauld- ing (U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Circ. 35, Aug. 1909).— The investigations into the blights to which the white pine (Pinus Strohus) is subject suggest that there is little to be alarmed at in the occurrence of this fungoid disease. — A. D. W. Woburn, Eleventh Report, 1910. By the Duke of Bedford, K.G., and Spencer U. Pickering, P.E.S. — This report deals with the nature of copper fungicides, the changes which they undergo when in use, and their action on vegetable organisms. See note under " Fungicides, Copper." — A. P. Woodlands of England. By C. E. Moss, W. M. Bankin, and A. G. Tansley (New Phytologist, ix. pp. 113-149; March-April, 1910). — This paper gives a general description of the various types of wood- land found in England, and is an outcome of a series of botanical surveys carried out by the authors. After dealing with the difficulties raised through the planting and sylvicultural treatment of our native woods, and the influence of coppicing, the paper goes on to group the woodlands. Three main types of wood are distinguished: (a) Alder- willow on wet soils ; (b) Oak and Birch woods on non-calcareous soils ; (c) Beech and Ash woods on calcareous soils. Further subdivisions are introduced and their characteristic features and undergrowth are considered. Thus the oak woods become grouped into damp oak woods and dry oak woods ; oak-birch-heath woods at low elevations, and very characteristic of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex; birch woods at high elevations. The method of treatment is practically unique, and the paper is free from technical detail, so that it is available for the general j reader who is interested in woodlands. The reprint before us may I be purchased from the New Phytologist, Botany School, Cambridge, price Is. Id., so that there is no need to attempt to abstract it. W. G. S. '284 JOUENAL OF THE EOYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Woolly Aphis, Sulphur-potash for. By E. E. Prescott {Jo7ir. Dep. Agr. Vict., November 1909, p. 723). — For light attacks of woolly- aphis the sulphur-potash paint may be used, and it will give excellent results. The formula is : Dissolve 2 lb. sulphate of potash in | gallon of water, and then mix in 2 lb. of sulphur. When a thorough mixture is formed, add sufficient raw linseed oil to dilute it to the consistency of ordinary house paint. It may then be brushed on to the parts affected. This mixture will keep, and, should it thicken, it may again be reduced by the addition of more linseed oil. This is a very effective paint, and is easily handled where the attacks of woolly aphis are too light to warrant the use of the spray-pump. — C. H. H. Yellow or Tulip Poplar. {U.S.A. Dep. Agr., Forest Service, Circ. 93, April 1907). — The range, habit, growth, and economic uses of the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), which does well and has attained to large size in various parts of Britain, are here clearly narrated, as is also the propagation and planting. — A. D. W. 2 6 JUL 1910 JOUENAL OF THE Royal Horticultural Society. Vol. XXXVI. 1910. Part II. A BOTANIZING EXPEDITION TO WEST AUSTRALIA IN THE SPRING (OCTOBER), 1909. By Capt. a. a. Doerien-Smith, D.S.O. I.— Cape Naturalists (Lat. 33o 30^ S., Long. 1150 E.). In September 1909 I left England with my wife for a visit to the Australian States, with the special intention of making as extensive a tour as time permitted through the south-west region of West Aus- tralia. I had often heard much about it, especially as regards its flora, the magnificence of which I believe to be unsurpassed. Nothing I have hitherto seen, in spite of all my wanderings, has anything like compared with the glory of this wonderful and curious flora, about which people in this country seem to know so little. To plant enthusiasts the flora is almost entirely unknown, yet it seems that anyone owning a " Bagshot Heath " or sand-dune of any description should be able to make a show of the types of plants found here, provided the climatic conditions were not too severe. On our arrival in Perth, West Australia, we were met by Dr. A. Morrison, formerly Government Botanist in the State, who most kindly helped us throughout and, by introducing us to many of his friends, enabled us to become quickly acquainted with the possibilities of our tour. We were also greatly assisted by Mr. Bertoli, of the Lands Department, who arranged for our conveyance across the country. We started on the third morning after our arrival — i.e. October 1, 1909 — to the neighbourhood of Cape Naturaliste, about 150 miles south of Perth on the West Coast. The approach is by rail to Bussel- ton, and then a drive of about twenty miles brings you to the Govern- ment Bungalow, close to the great limestone caves of Yallingup, which •is a very convenient centre from which to study the flora. VOL. XXXVI. U 286 JOURNAL OF THE KUYAL; HOKTICULTLI HAL S( )C 1 1'VIA' . From the railway, as we passed along, could be seen masses oF flowers on either hand. One of the large species of Conos'permuin was very conspicuous; the local name is Smoke Bush, called so, I suppose, by the settlers on account of the misty smoke-like effect which the plant has when seen at a distance in full flower. Then would appear in masses of bright blue a species of LeschenauUia, which is not unknown as an introduced plant in the British Isles. Anigozanthus Manglesii also abounded in the moister places, and many other strange plants, which we afterwards had time to observe at leisure. The rail- way runs along the western slope of the Darling Eange between it and the sea on the edge of the limestone and granite, where the forest trees are mostly of a scrubby nature, composed of several kinds of EiLcalyptus, chiefly E. marginata (Jarrah) and E. patens (Blackbutt). Soon after leaving Boyanup station the aspect changed, and we rau through a forest of magnificent great trees of Eucalyptus gompho- cephalus (Tuart), which, with their great white trunks towering up to between 120 ft. and 150 ft. in height, were very striking. After passing this we came out into swampy land with Melaleuca scrub (fig. 90), and thence to the sand-dunes, the township of Bussel- ton, and the sea coast. "We stayed the night at Busselton, then proceeded to drive to Yallingup Gave House, some twenty miles by a road running for some distance parallel to the sea just behind the sand-dunes. The scrub on either side of the road for the first ten miles was very thick, and here there are several small rivers running in sandy semi-swampy courses into the sea, most notable of which is the Vasse Eiver. Its neighbour- hood is especially prolific in Leguminous and Myrtaceous plants, especially . scrub Acacias, Melaleucas, and Agonis; these formed a veritable jungle, through which it was very difficult and prickly to push, the Acacias being largely represented by the sub-genera Pungentes and Bipinnatae. Occasionally we passed clearings and small settlements, and here Agonis flexuosa showed to great advantage, with its thick, short butt, large-headed, much-branched top, and its beautiful weeping habit; it was covered with a mass of small white flowers in axillary heads (fig. 91). After passing through a large swampy flat covered with a low-grow- ing Melaleuca, Hypocalymma rohusta, Oaladenias (terrestrial orchids), and Droseras (sundews), the ground began to rise, and we came upon the first Eucalypti since leaving Busselton, mostly scrub Jarrah and Black- butt. I noticed a large patch of Boronia (pink) growing in a swampy place, and every minute we passed fresh flowering plants, including a large variety of most lovely Pimeleas, the white Pimelea spectabilis, and all shades of pink to the bright little P. ferruginea; the brilliant blue Dampieras; the yellow Hibbertias and Conostylis; and both mauve and yellow Patersonias (fringe lihes), which belong to the Iris family. About six miles of this brought us to the Government Bungalow, situated on the hmestone at the head of a small ravine leading to the sea on the West Goast, about nine miles south of Gape NaturaHste. Fig. 90. — Melaleuca-Xanthorrhoea Scrub. Cape ISl aturaliste district. Left foreground stem of Banksia attcnuata. (To face page 286.) Fig. 91. — Xanthorrhoea Preissii, showing flower spikes. On right Agonis flexuosa (weeping). Cape Naturaliste district. A BOTANIZING EXPEDITION TO WEST AUSTRALIA. 287 Although the plants were more attractive, we thought it advisable to pacify the cave guides at once, and so immediately after lunch we set off with them to see the great limestone caves. These are a wonderful sight and well worth a visit; the caves are lighted by electricity and shown to the best advantage. The stalactites are exceptionally fine in these caves, which are ■ very large, and only rivalled by the Jenolan Caves in the Blue Mountains in New South Wales, which I saw on a former occasion. Early the next morning we went down the ravine to the seashore. At the mouth of it is a sand-dune on which grow stunted Melaleuca and the sea-grass Spinifex longifolms, while on the back of the dune grows a shrub about three to four feet tall with a foliage rather like Correa virens, but with a pendulous orange and red flower ; it was pretty as well as curious, and the flower when crushed gave out a very unpleasant pungent odour. I believe the plant to be Diplolaena Dampieri. There were some magnificent Xanthorrhoeas (Black boys) in this ravine. We stayed at the Cave House two more days and busied ourselves exploring the country all round as well as visiting Cape Naturaliste itself. I hoped to come across Nageia (Podocarpus) Drouyniana, one of the few Taxads which exist in this part of West Australia. It is usually a small shrub, and is chiefly of botanical interest. It grows in isolated patches about this district, but I did not obtain specimens until T returned to Busselton, where it was growing about four miles from the back of the township. All round the Cave House and south towards the Margaret Eiver is an excellent place for collecting ; the species are very numerous and present a gorgeous sight when all in flower as we saw them. Banksia grandis (fig. 92) is especially fine, and so is B. attenuata (fig. 93) ; then there was a fine holly-leaved Dryandra, which was very striking, and several species of Boronia, and species of Tetratheca with both pink and white flowers. Ferns are only very poorly represented in West Australia ; their place is taken by species of Macrozamia, XanthorrJioea (fig. 91), and Kingia (fig. 94), the first two being very abundant. I obtained a large number of the Macrozamia nuts. They are oval pebble-like seeds and very heavy ; as a rule the fruit is borne close to the ground near the centre and crown of the plant, which possesses a won- derful mecTianism for discharging them and can hurl them quite twelve feet. In one particular instance which I remember, I was most alarmed by a discharge, and thought I must have offended a forest of monkeys at least, until looking about me I found no monkeys, but that the real cause was Macrozamia ; the farthest nut I found in this instance was fifteen feet away. The next day we set off on ponies to visit the lighthouse at Cape Naturaliste and examine the district as we went. We followed the track which leads to the lighthouse, distant about fifteen miles from the Yallingup Cave House. Every yard almost disclosed more flower- ing plants; the Leguminous plants are very lovely, especially the V 2 288 JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. Cliorlzemas and Kennedy as. We found a large patch of Acacia saligva, which I had not seen before in any quantity; and on nearing the hght- honse the country became more open, the vegetation very stunted, and here and there were patches of the blue Leschenauliia, a creeping Dryandra, a Calythrix, and the little iris-like Sisyrifichium, while the scrub Jarrah gum was in full flower (white). I had previously written to Mr. Baird, the lighthouse-keeper, to say we were coming, and on arrival we were most hospitably received by Mrs. Baird, who had prepared lunch for us. Mr. and Mrs. Baird are much interested in natural history and plants, so I learnt while there a great deal about the birds of the neighbourhood as well as about some of the plants. After visiting the lighthouse we explored the cliffs and were much struck by finding masses of Templetomia retusa in flower; it is a fine thing, and the flower very much resembles the well-known New Zealand plant Cliantlius puniceus. The northern sheltered side of the Cape is densely covered with some very fine Melaleucas (fig. 95), but the species I did not identify. Eeturning again to the lighthouse we saddled our ponies and started on our return journey to the Cave House, but were very sorry to leave, and felt we could have profitably spent at least two days here. Mr. and Mrs. Baird were most kind to us, and have already fulfilled their promise to send home seeds. On this day I had a very heavy col- lection of specimens and several plants, and was exceedingly glad that my pony had to bear the brunt of the weight and not myself ; but I feel we were well rewarded for our long outing. The next day was spent in pressing specimens and photographing various shrubs and trees, and the evening found us again in Busselton. Thus ended our first insight into the flora of South- Western Australia, over which I was greatly dazzled and much confused ; but its magnifi- cence has left a very deep impression. II. — From Bridgetown (Lat. 34° S., Long. 116° E.) to Stirling Eange (Lat. 34^ 30^ S., Long. IIBO 15' E.). After leaving Busselton we proceeded to Bridgetown by train, where we started for a cross-country drive. The country may be described as one vast sand heap, underlying which is either granite or limestone, which appears on the surface in places. The vegetation is mostly composed of large forest trees (Eucalyptus) or small shrubs, mainly of a heath-like appearance, and where the Eucalypti are more scattered, there the shrubs abound; but even the floor of the densest gum forest is by no means bare (fig. 96). I was most kindly assisted by the Lands Department here, who took considerable trouble to insure that we should have a suitable outfit for our cross-country drive. Having got all the plant-collecting material, stores, and horse food piled on our buggy, we left Bridgetown on October 7. and did fourteen miles in an easterly direction to our first camp townrds Kojonnp. Islr. Maiden, Government Botanist of New Soutli Wales, and ]iis wife h.ad Fig. 92. — Banksia grandis. Cape Naturaliste district. Fig. 93. — Banksia attenuata. Cape Naturaliste district. Fig. 94. — Black boys (Xantkorrhoea Preissii) and silvery Kingias , (KiNGIA AUSTRALIS). Fig. 95. — Giant Melaleuca. Cape Naturaliste district. A BOTANIZING EXPEDITION TO WEST AUSTKALIA. 289 joined us at Bridgetown, and came with us to our j&rst camp ; but unfor- tunately the weather was so bad that he was, > wing to his health, unable to continue, and I sent them the next day to the nearest railway siding in time to catch the daily train towards Perth. It rained all that day till 4 P.M., so we did not shift camp. We, however, got a good many specimens of plants — Hibbertias, Hakeas, Dryandras, Leucopogons, and the brilliant blue Dampieras, and many very bright-flowering Leguminous plants. On the 9th we got away from our wet camp about 10 A.M. betweeen two squalls, and until we got near the Blackwood Eiver fresh plants were scarce. We made a midday halt on the Blackwood, and poked about there for a couple of hours. The squalls were very heavy, and it hailed like mad ; but towards the evening the weather improved, and we reached a homestead belonging to our driver 's brother, who most hospitably took us in. The country all about this place, Dinninup, is becoming more settled. The land when cleared is good, and there is good grass of native sorts, but very few introduced grasses yet. The soil being derived from granite dries very quickly in the summer, and the intro- duced grass does not have a chance, especially when the farmer finds he cannot afford to shut a paddock off from the stock and give the new grass an opportunity of establishing itself. Introduced grasses, therefore, are said not to do; but I feel sure this is really not the case, by the fact of the presence of introduced grasses invariably found in small paddocks and gardens around the homestead, where stock are not usually turned in, except as casuals. On the 10th we drove thirty-six miles into Kojonup, and had a rather long but most interesting day. It was, for instance, our first introduction to the gorgeous red Leschenaultia, which is inclined to spread itself over the ground, somewhat after the manner of Lotus peliorynchus , but outrivaliing it altogether in colour effect. The track about midday became rather heavy and boggy, and we nearly got stuck up once or twice ; but we found a great many plants which were new to us, especially in a small open patch, just after we passed through the worst bit of bog. These plants turned out to be a small outlying patch of the flora of the sand-plains, so distinct from that found in the gum forest. After the midday halt, we had a journey of only about sixteen miles into Kojonup. The white gum. Eucalyptus redunca, began to take the place of the Jarrah and red gum, and we found a Kangaroo Paw {Anigozanthus) new to us. The Kangaroo Paw is peculiar to West Australia, and is a most remarkable plant. It has a few small, short, iris-flke leaves, and shoots up a flower-stalk (in A. Manglesii) 2|- feet high, resembling a hand or paw, the knuckles of which are red plush, and the fingers green plush. The variety we found on this occasion was of a terra- cotta colour. There are others — green, black, and pale yellow, and entirely yellow. Arrived at Kojonup (10th) we proceeded to wash and brush up and get things dry, press plant-specimens, change the papers on others. 290 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. and replenish our stores. Our driver had now got out of his district, so we had for the future to rely on our maps and any other infor- mation we could pick up ; and on the 11th we started off towards Oranbrook for a twenty-two mile drive, to the first river, marked Slab Hutt Gully, where I knew a Mr. Tunney lived, to whom I had an introduction from Mr. Woodward, the Curator of the Perth Museum. Mr. Tunney received us most hospitably, and I gained a great deal of information about the district, and also something of the North- West Territory, in which he had spent several years of his life, wandering and collecting the fauna for various museums, &c. About three miles on the Kojonup side of the gully we came upon more open patches of country, and the sand-plain flora in particular in all its glory (fig. 97). The yellow V erticordia ; a small smoke-bush {Cono- spermum), a heath-like scrub, with a mass of small white cottony flowers ; Beaufortia (scarlet after the manner of Callistemon) ; Billardiera, a red bell-flowered creeper, which twined itself about the taller of the low- growing scrub ; Gastrolobiums, with their bright pea-flowers, many species of which are poisonous to stock; Kunzea, Calythrix, Andersonia, the bright-blue Dampieras and Leschenaultia; of all the brilliant flowers I believe the red and blue Leschenaultia holds the field. We also saw many white- flowered Epacrids, and the Scilla-like Chamaescilla corym- bosa, with its crinkly foliage, varying from green at the base to brick- red at the tips, with beautiful bright-blue flower head, some four or five inches high ; the orange-flowered Bossiaea, Davesias, Hakeas, Grevilleas, terrestrial Orchids, Droseras, and many other things. The Orchids and Droseras seem to grow anywhere and everywhere, in swamps, on sand-heaps, or mountain-tops alike; but the species seem to be ever changing, and their flowers are very lovely, especially the latter, which were white, red, coral, mauve, and yellow. On the 12th we went on eighteen miles to Oranbrook, where we met with the Great Southern Kailway, and stayed two nights. The water was bad, but submitted to boiling, and the proprietor of the local hotel let us have some water from his tank to make the tea with. We scoured the sand-plain for plants, and found many new ones, especially the Banksias, Dryandras, scrub Hakeas, Melaleucas, Lambertias, and the flame-flowered Eremaea. I managed to get seeds of some of the species about here, but on the whole we have not got many seeds, as it is too early, and only the hard- wooded seeds of last year are obtainable. We heard that we were not likely to find much water in the Stirling Eange, and the next day this proved correct, when we pushed on twenty-three miles to a ''well." It was the worst smelling water I have ever experienced, which is saying a good deal. Situated in a boggy place, the well had been riveted wdth green gum timbers, which had turned the water a purplish-black, like ink. Needless to say, the horses would not touch it, but after boiling it twice, and throwing in tea, we managed to drink a little. All this day we drove over the sand-plains, along the north side of the hills. The Stirling Eange is an isolated patch of Silurian rocks, which rise abruptly out of the plain, and are devoid A BOTANIZING EXPEDITION TO WEST AUSTRALIA. 291 ot gushing streams or luxurious vegetation. The highest is Bhiff Peak, marked 3600 feet on the map. On the sand-plain there is a low gum-scrub, large numbers of Hakeas, Banksias, Leucopogons, Dryan- dras, and Beaufortias, and when crossing the spur of a hill we found the beautiful blue Dam-piera erioce'phala, with foliage somewhat re- sembling an Auricula. We did not even wait to press plants at this camp, but pushed on early, thirteen miles further, and found a veritable oasis in the desert, a homestead and good water, and delightful camp at Warrungup (fig. 98). You may notice that nearly all the names of places end in "up." This termination in the words of the native black means a perpetual spring — a welcome sign on any map in such a sand-desert. At Warrungup we found Mr. Welstead, the owner, who was most kind to us and gave us milk in plenty, and told us all about the locality, advising us first to ascend Warrungup Hill, 2800 feet, where we should find the " Mountain Bell," the most beautiful flower he had ever seen. • The next day, the 16th, we ascended and had a stiff climb, but I never saw any garden, wild or otherwise, to equal the flowers on this hill, which, composed of Silurian rocks and shales, was very stony, and generally could be best described as a vast arid shingle sHp, with the scrub growing through it. We found the "Mountain Bell " very near the base of the hill, and it proved to be a Darwinia, with its beautiful pink bell-like flowers ; it grew in the shade of the lovely white Epacrid Lysinema (fig. 99), and close by were glorious bushes, eight feet tall, of the striking Protead Isopogon latifolius, with cones of pink flowers (fig. 100). We found also Dryandra for- mosa, a mass of golden-yellow flowers (fig. 99); and a species of Beaufortia, as well as a yellow Melaleuca, Dampiera eriocephala, a climbing Stylidium, with a flower-head like a pink Phlox, and many other Myrtaceous and Epacridaceous plants, and perhaps least, but yet none the less glorious sight on the top of the mountain, a species of Utricularia, and a beautiful crimson Orchid, an inch high. I should also mention a mauve pea-flowered shrub, called Burtonia ; a fern, Aspleniurn flnhelli folium, to say nothing of the various Gastrolobiums, with their many-coloured pea-flowers. Having climbed to the summit of the hill, we obtained a fine view of Mount Toolbrunup to the south and the whole range stretching east and west, while away on the sand-plains we counted over fifty lakes, which we knew too well were all salt. In the far distance to the south-east we could see the sea near Cape Eiche, forty-five miles off. This, again, is a most interesting district; but, unfortunately, we had no time to visit it. We thoroughly examined the ridge, collected what seeds we could find, and then descended the hill on the west side. Our driver, who had never seen a real mountain before, came with us and acted as water-carrier, there being not a drop on the hill ; he caused US much amusement when, we came to a shingle slip, as he had no 292 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. idea of how to negotiate it, and was much ahiiined at its steepness and puzzled as to how we sHd down so quickly and safely. At the bottom we saw masses of a heatli-like blue-flowering shrub, which, on examination, turned out to be a Conospermum, quite unlike any of the other species we had previously seen. Not very far away we obtained our first sight of Banksia coccinea, a truly beautiful little Banksia with brilliant scarlet cones of flowers. We then wended our way through the scrub gums to our camp, which we reached about 6 p.m. On the 17th we pressed specimens, cracked seeds, and rested, and planned attacks on Mount Toolbrunup, 3400 feet high. On the 18th we moved on nine miles and surveyed the country round our new camp. We found a large bushy Pimelea, Xanthosia rotund'ifolia (the Southern Grass-flower), both white and very pretty, as well as many Leucopogons and a very brilliant Chorizema, and also the lovely blue Platytheca galioides, a heath-like plan£' about eighteen inches high. We further speculated on the prospects of getting up Toolbrunup, which is very rocky, terminating in a sharp cone for the last 300 feet, and can only be ascended at certain points. We found here fine specimens of the silvery-foliaged Kingia, which is by far the most graceful of all the " Black-boy " tribe (fig. 101). The 19th broke thick and bad, with no hilltops to be seen, but about 10 A.M. it cleared, and we rode our horses to the foot of Tool- brunup, about three miles off, and tied them up. On the way we found Banksia Brownii, remarkable for its pinnate lea.ves and the great size of its flower; another Banksia, which we have not identified; a Bossaea, and Aotus gracillima. We climbed to within 300 feet of the top of the cone by a spur from the eastern side, had lunch, and got ready for the final climb, when down came the clouds and deluges of rain. We waited till 3 p.m. for it to clear, as we could not go on in the mist, and then scrambled down again by a deep gully, found the horses, and got into camp at 5.30 p.m. The flora on this hill was good, but not to be compared with that on Warrungup. We found scrub- gum at a height of over 3000 feet and a veritable jungle of a species of Thomasia, an Acacia, the name of which I do not know, and a variety of Acacia longijolia out of flower; also a Mirhelia, a mauve pea- flowered prickly bush, which I am told makes a good hedge, but I did not see it in cultivation. On the plain at the foot of the hill we came across masses of the magnificent Banksia coccinea, which is a small slender-growing plant, generally single- stemmed, sometimes branched, with a maximum height of ten feet. On the 20th we reached Mount Barker, on the railway, distance thirty-six miles, finding little that was new across this bit of sand-plain country, mainly because it was completely devastated by fire as far as the Kalgan Ei\Ter. On the south side of the river the country was more settled, and we passed many fruit orchards, looking prosperous and well-grown, and from what I saw^ of the fruit districts generally I should say there was a great future before the industry. Wheat-grow- ing is ever on the increase, and the crops looked well. Agriculturally Fig. 96. — EucALYrTus calophylla, the Red Gum of West Australia. {To face page 292.) Fig. 97. — Giant Dryandra or thf, Sand Plains, JScRrB Jarrah, and Xanthorrhoea gracilis. Fig. 99. — The Giant ErACEiD. Lysinema ciliatum; to the left DrYANDRA FORMOSA. (To jace page 293.) A BOTANIZING EXPEDITION TO WEST AUSTRALIA. 293 this State is far more backward than any of the others, but the soil for the most part is good, in spite of its sandy appearance. Besides the great timber industry in Karri and Jarrah, &c., there are two others which are connected with the forestry which are unportant. One is the sandal- w^ood, so much in request in the East, but which seems likely to soon become wiped out ; the other is mallat-bark [Eucalyptus occidentalis), used for tanning. I came across consider- able quantities of this gum-tree growing near Kojonup, especially near Slab Hutt Gully. This gum reafforests itself very quickly, especially after a fire has been through it. I was showm dense masses of it only seven years old, which now is ten to twelve feet in height. There is at present probably little chance of the plant being exterminated, but there is no restriction on the size of the plant stripped and killed, and if it is all stripped before it comes into fruit-bearing it stands to reason that the plant may become wiped out and a useful industry destroyed. On the 21st we parted with Mr. Blechynden, our excellent driver and guide, and his team with many regrets. He had a lonely drive of 135 miles back to Bridgetown, while we had a fourteen hours' journey, covering 302 miles, to Perth, where we arrived safely. Dr. A. Morrison very kindly took over all the plant specimens in order to get them thoroughly dry before sending them to England. In our three weeks' tour we got a vast collection of perhaps some 500 specimens. Altogether we had a most delightful trip, which was all too short, but long enough to get an insight into the flora of the South- West, where the rainfall is from twenty-five to forty-five inches, and where I am in hopes of being able to get many plants in the future, which could be grown in favoured gardens in the British Isles. There is a fine field for research still left for anyone who is an enthusiastic botanist, and who would take up the study of the West Australian flora. The tropical regions especially are practically un- touched, and some one is badly wanted who will work up this most varied and interesting flora, the standard work upon which is still Bentham and Mueller's "Flora Australensis. " So recently as 1902 Messrs. Diels and Pritzel visited West Australia and added some 240 new species in a comparatively short expedition through the best- known parts of the southern floral area, a fact that will give some idea of what is still to be done in this region. 294- JOURNAL OF THE EOYAL ITORTTCULTUR AL SOCIETY. TEEES AND GARDENS AT ATHENS. By D. S. Fish, F.R.H.S. On entering the port of Piraeus one becomes aware of the strong scent of the Aleppo Pine {Pinus liaJeperisis) that grows so freely on the hills around Athens. This tree is valued for its resin, v^hich is put to a variety of uses, including even the flavouring of wine, the renowned " retsinato " being impregnated with this substance. In order to obtain the resin, the trunks of the trees are rudely slashed, many of the cuts being two or three feet long. This is prob- ably why the trees around Athens never reach a large size. As the Aleppo Pine and the Cypress {Cupressus sempervirens) withstand the heat and dryness of the summer better than any other tree yet tried, they are still extensively planted. Although the Acropolis is treeless a good deal of trouble has been taken to form plantations (unfortunately of a highly inflammable nature) on the steep slopes of Mount Lyabettos. Towards the base of the hill of Philoppapos also, many Pines and Cypresses have been set out. Near the so-called Prison of Socrates many shallow holes were noticed, in which trees had not, for some reason or other, been planted. Last August each little pit contained several sturdy plants of Barnaby's Thistle {Centaur ea solstitmlis), the bright yellow flowers of which created a somewhat curious effect, as the plants grew only in the holes made for the trees, the intervening ground probably being too hard and too dry for them at that time of the year. Only in one or two instanoes are trees present to add to- the beauty of the ancient monuments of Athens. The handsome columns of the Olympieion (fig. 102) are certainly seen at their best when view^ed from behind the Cypresses near the Arch of Pladrian. According to the Greek legend, Cecrops, the founder of Athens, brought the Olive, about 1600 B.C., from Sais, an Egyptian city dedi- cated to Minerva. In the Erechtheion on the Acropolis a young Olive tree is growing on the spot where it is said that Athena victoriously strove with Possidon. It occupies the place of the celebrated Olive tree called forth by the goddess and which was partially destroyed by the Persians in b.c. 480. As in bygone days, Oleanders cover the banks and sometimes the bed of the Ilissos (dry in the summer). The showy pink flowers of this shrub, together with the purple Chaste tree {Vitex Agnus-castus), enliven the rivers and streams throughout Greece. The pretty ivy-like Cynanchum acuiuni frequently climbs over the Vife.v. The street avenues of the graceful Pepper tree {Schinns iiwlJe), with ils weeping brandies of fern-like leaves and coral-red berries, cannot TREES AND GARDENS AT ATHENS. 295 fail to attract attention. This tree is unaffected by dust or heat, and it associates well with marble buildings on either side. The specimens selected for street avenue planting should be mainly . female, as the berries are decorative. The finest avenue of w^eeping Pepper trees at Athens runs between the Eoyal Palace and the Arch of Hadrian. The street is about 30 feet wide and the trees are 8 to 10 feet apart in the lines. From this pleasantly shaded street one obtains a fine view of the cone-shaped Mount Lyabettos. The two principal squares of Athens — the Place de la Constitution and the Place de la Concorde — contain quick-growung trees, such as Cypresses, Oranges, Palms, and Carobs, but nothing of particular interest. The remains of what was probably once a small public garden exist near the Theseion. Only drought-resisting trees and shrubs, such as Ligustrum japonicum, Eucalypti, Celtis, Euonymus, and the common Box remain. Caesalpinia Gilliesii, a shrub with Mimosa-like leaves and somewhat striking yellow flow^ers, is plentiful. As in Egypt and in other countries with a dry atmosphere, this Caesalpinia has spread, in spite of drought and neglect. It has lately been highly recommended in Tunis as a bee-plant, but at Athens the bees show a marked prefer- ence for the Wild Thyme, which grows on Mount Hymettos and else- where. Nicotiana glauca — the Tree Tobacco — is also becoming naturalized. It is an interesting and singular plant from Buenos Ayres, bearing no resemblance to the ordinary Tobacco, having yellow flowers like a Cestrum and smooth and glaucous leaves not unlike those of Phytolacca dioica. On the Eiviera it is commonly cultivated as an ornamental tree (10 to 30 feet tall). It is natm-alized in many countries. Around Alexandria it forms a conspicuous feature during the summer months when other vegetation has perished from the effects of the heat. In Chios it may be seen growing from cracks in the street pavements. The garden attached to the Eoyal Palace at Athens (fig. 103) was laid out by Queen Amalia. It is open to the public on Sunday, Wednesday, and Saturday afternoons. The grounds are watered by means of a canal made in ancient times. Practically the whole garden consists of a thick shrubbery penetrated by winding alleys. The tangled growth is composed mainly of Pines, Cypresses, Ligustrum japonicum, Olive and Pepper trees underplanted with various shrubs, such as the White Jasmine, &c. Near the Palace there is an open space laid down in grass and planted with various Palms, the trunks of one or two of which are covered with Ivy. A pergola (fig. 104), built of stone and iron, is adorned with Eoses, Honeysuckles, and Dioclea glycinoides : the last a slender twining plant with small red flowers. The Public Garden is close to the Palace. It consists of a series of crowded shrubberies interspersed with open spaces. Orange trees grown as standards line some of the paths. The Aleppo Pine is used here as a hedge to protect beds of roses. The typical form of Althaea 296 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. syriacus is a conspicuous shrub ; the purple colouring of its flowers cannot, however, be admired. The uninviting appearance of the Public Garden is due to the over- crowding of the trees and shrubs, and also to the absence of lawns. The Bermuda Grass {Gynodon Dactylon), which makes excellent lawns in Egypt, is not utilized for this purpose at Athens, although it occurs as a weed. The summers are too hot for ryegrass or other English lawn grasses. The Botanic Garden, Athens. The Botanic Garden (fig. 105) lies about fifteen minutes from the centre of the town. It is divided into two parts — a collection of plants used for teaching purposes, and a nursery of young trees. No un- common species were noticed in the nursery. The part which is supposed to be systematically arranged is con- fusing, as trees and herbaceous plants have been planted together, and the former allowed to grow unchecked. It must, however, be admitted that the Garden owes its interest to the trees and shrubs which it contains. By far the most beautiful plant in flower last midsummer was Solanum Rantonnetii (japonicum), an Argentine shrub three to five feet high, with showy purplish flowers. August is certainly not a month in which to look for herbaceous plants at Athens, but the common Soapwort [Saponaria officinalis) was in full flower, notwithstanding the heat and dust. Convolvulus mauritanicus formed mats of brilliant blue flowers. A large collection of bulbs, chiefly Crocuses, are grown in pots. These would be interesting in the spring. Stronger growing bulbous plants, such as the Saffron and Pancratium odoratissimum, are culti- vated in the open. There are two avenues of Palms in the Botanic Garden — one of Piloenix canariensis, and one of Trachy carpus excelsa. The effect of the latter is spoilt by the trees on one side being taller than those on the other. The undermentioned are among the most conspicuous trees : — Acacia linearis, 11 feet, very thickly hung with seed pods; Pliillyrea media, 11 feet; Yucca aloifolia Draconis, 10 feet; Fontanesia pliil- lyraeoides, a graceful specimen, with wide-spreading weeping branches; and the Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca), 15 feet, with abundance of its curious, orange-like but inedible fruit. The Golden Olive [Olea chrysophyUa) is represented by a well- fruited specimen about 16 feet high. This species resembles the common Olive in habit, but the undersides of the leaves are dull yellow. Good examples may be seen at Cairo, though fruiting specimens are rare there. The Pistachio Nut (Pisiacia vera) is well grown, and is quite orna- mental during July and August, the branches being then laden with rose-coloured fruit. Cellis ausiralis and C. Touniefortii, with horn- beam-like foliage, arc also adraclive trees during the sunnner months. Fig. 100. . — ISOPOGON LATIFOLIUS IN FlOWER ON WaRRUNGUP HiLL, WITH Mt. Toolbrunup to South in Distance. {To face pcKje 296.> TREES AND GARDENS AT ATHENS. 297 The former produces the fruit known in Greece as Honeyberries, and is supposed to be the Lotus described by Homer as so dehcate as to make those who ate them (Lotophagi) forget their native country. The Jujube tree {Zizyphus vulgaris) and the European Date Plum (Diospyros Lotus) grow welL Other trees and shrubs noticed were : Pistacia Terebinthus, Celastrus muUiflorus, Coriaria myrtifolia, Cordia Myxa (the berries are full of viscid matter, and make good bird-lime), Rhamnus Alaternus, Koel- reuteria paniculata, Opuntia hrasiliensis, 0. albicans, 0. Kleiniae, 0, monocantha, Bupleunim fruticosa, Ptelea trifoliata, P}ioti7iia glabra, Laurus 7iobilis, Buxus sempervirens, Ulmus compesiris, &c., and Phytolacca dioica, the Bella Sombra of Buenos Ayres, a tree remark- able because of its thick stems ; it thrives where many other trees will not grow. Climbing plants are mostly represented by Periploca graeca, Celas- trus scandens, and the graceful Abobra viridiflora, with its dark-green, much divided leaves. Bignonia Tweediana is also conspicuous, draping several of the trees. George Maw, the monographer of the genus Crocus, visited the Athens Botanic Garden in the 'seventies, and in the Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh he gave a list of some of the plants then in the Garden : Biota orientalis, Cupressus horizontalis, C. Tournefortii, Crataegus japonica, Juniperus attica, Gleditschia triacanthos, G. ferox, Anthyllis Barba-Jovis, Ebenus cretica, Photinia arbutifolia, P. serrulata, Madura aurantiaca, Cocculus laurifolius, Rhus vinmialis, Uhnus suberosa, U. excelsa, Melianthus minor, Olea chrysophylla, Solanum auriculatum , Viburnum suspensum, and beds of Saffron (Crocus sativus). Some of the plants mentioned by Maw have disappeared; others still remain. For instance, the plants of Olea chrysophylla and Madura aurantiaca existing to-day are the identical specimens noticed by him over thirty years ago. One cannot help regretting that nothing has been done towards making a speciality of certain plants adaptable to the climatic conditions. What good collections of succulent and other xerophilous plants could be formed at Athens ! Kephisia. Vegetation is much more luxuriant at Kephisia than at Athens, and this is not surprising, as Kephisia lies at a considerable elevation above sea-level. Communication with the capital by train is both easy and rapid, and Kephisia has become a favourite excursion from Athens. Kephisia was already a summer resort in Eoman times. Good avenues of trees shade the roads. The climate and gardens remind one of Ireland. Eoses are at their best early in the summer. Fruit trees and all kinds of vegetables grow with the same ease as at home. Easp- berries were noticed in full bearing. Kephisia is a good starting point for Tatoi, the King's summer 298 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. residence, and also for Mount Pentilikon, a delightful excursion even during the summer. Masses of Terebinth, Dwarf Oaks, Heaths, Wild Olive, Pistacia Lentisci^z, and Arbutus, which, under the name of Myathis, was once sacred to the goddess Aphrodite, are conspicuous features of the mountain vegetation. The Arbutus is occasionally uprooted and sent to Alexandria, where it is sold as a fruit tree to unsuspecting amateurs. On the lower slopes of Mount Pentilikon Poterium sjpinosmn forms springy cushions sometimes three feet across. Cultivated plants of this Poterium used to be plentiful on a small rockery in the Botanic Garden at Bome, but they were never so large as those which occur in a wild state in Greece, &c. The delicious odour of the mountain air is due to Oistus, Pines, and the Wild Thyme {Thymus capitatus), from which the bees make the famed Hymettos honey. As a matter of fact, this plant is by no means confined to Mount Hymettos ; it occurs on most hills, and is also found in the lowlands, where, as at Olympia, for instance, it loses its prostrate habit and becomes an erect shrub one foot to two feet tall, flowering throughout the summer months. Thymus capitatus is sometimes used for edging paths in Greek gardens. Gazania, Vinca, an ornamental grass [Pennisetum longistylum), and, strange to say, the Lucerne are also employed for this purpose. THE WILD FLOWERS OF THE WEST OF IRELAND. 299 THE WILD FLOWEES OF THE WEST OF lEELAND AND THEIE HISTOEY. By E. Lloyd Praeger, B.A. [Read April 19, 1910.] In the course of a lecture on Eock Gardens, which I had the honom- of dehvering before this Society last year, I referred to the natural rock gardens of the district of Burren in the county of Clare, and to the remarkable flora which colonizes the bare limestone hills of that region. Y/hat I said on that occasion seems to have excited some interest, as I received subsequently more than one letter from members of the audience concerning the Burren and its plants. I have therefore ventured to think that a rather fuller description of that very remarkable botanical region, the West of Ireland, may prove of interest. It may perhaps be thought that a lecture on botanical geography, rather than on a horticultural subject, is not altogether suit- ajble for this Society. But I do not think the contention can be sustained. He is indeed a poor horticulturist who is content merely to cultivate his rare species without wishing to know where they come from, under what conditions they grow naturally, and what has been their history and their migrations since the distant period of their appear- ance. In studying our native British plants we find ourselves faced by many of the great problems relating to the vegetation of the world ; and in this connection the West of Ireland is of especial interest, as there we may collect evidence of long-past plant migrations of a quite dramatic character, which give us some idea of the great changes of fortune which the flora of these islands has undergone. The vegetation which we find clothing any area is the result of two main factors. The first of these is the past history of the region, espe- cially as regards changes in the distribution of land and sea, and of temperature, which have permitted or prevented the migration of species. The other is its present condition as regards meteorological and edaphic (soil) conditions. Before we attempt to trace the history of the flora of an area, therefore, we must first know the history of the area itself. If we wish to understand the composition of the assemblage of plants which we now find in the valleys and on the hills of our islands, our first inquiries must centre round the geology of the country. We must build up our land before we can build up its flora. In this connection we must flrst of all realize how closely connected Ireland and Great Britain are both with each other and witli the Conti- nent. Both stand on the continental shelf, and the depth of the water which cuts them off is as nothing compared with the abyss which yawns on the westward and which extends across to America. A comparatively 300 JOUENAL OF THE! EOYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. slight elevation would drain the water off the submerged lands which form the Irish Sea and the German Ocean, and restore a continuous continental edge extending from the Pyrenees to the West Coast of Ireland and thence northward towards Scandinavia. We have to deal, then, with a continental shelf, in connection with which, the geologists tell us, there is abundant evidence of fluctuations of level in past ages. To go back to a very distant epoch, we find that at the close of the Silurian period the earth's crust along the continental edge was sub- jected to severe pressure from the north-west and south-east, which threw the surface into a series of great folds running at right angles to the direction of thrust — namely, north-east and south-west. This folding formed the great mountain ranges and valleys of Scotland which still give to that country its character ; and in the West of Ireland the county of Donegal was similarly crumpled, as were portions of Mayo and Galway; and far to the northward Scandinavia owes its present contour to the same mighty folding. On the land thus uplifted exten- sive lakes formed later on, and during the succeeding Devonian period a great thickness of sandstones and slates w^as laid down on the lake bottoms. The land sank at length, the sea flowed again over much of the British Isles ; and during the Carboniferous period which succeeded, the greater part of Ireland was thickly covered with a vast series of limestones and shales laid down on a surface now deeply submerged beneath the ocean. Again the land rose — we are now passing by millions of years in as many seconds — and once more a period of severe earth- pressure set in, folding not only the old rocks already distorted by the former period of pressure, but also, in a notable degree, the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks that now overlay them. The result is seen on a glorious scale in the south-west of Ireland, in the vast ribs of slate and sandstone rocks that form the mountain ranges and promontories of Kerry and Cork, and the deep corresponding valleys where alone are left traces of the Carboniferous limestone which formerly covered the country. Thus, then, are the three great mountain districts of western Ireland accounted for, those of Donegal and of Mayo-Galway owing their origin to the earlier, and that of Kerry-Cork to the later period of crumpling. In the spaces between these three great buttresses of ancient uplifted rock, the Carboniferous beds, more destructible, reposed in a more or less undisturbed condition; and the Atlantic, beat- ing incessantly against the western coast, and the rains dissolving the limestone have together worn down and eaten out these softer rocks, so that the country covered by them now presents green plains and deep sea-inlets, contrasting with the heathery heights and bold promon- tories of the folded areas of harder rocks. We are in a position now to turn to the botany of this region. We see that ancient geological changes have provided for the plants an area in which tracts largely covered with limestone, and mostly low in elevation, alternate with mountainous tracts of rocks other than lime- stone, two main types of plant-habitat being thus provided; and we Photo: R. Welch. Fig. 106. — Mediterranean Heath (Erica mediterranea) . 6 ft. tall, Mallaranny, West Mayo. {To face yagc 300.) 302 JOURNAL OF THE EOYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. than three strange heaths occur in the district, often growing in great abundance; and none of them is found anywhere else in the British Islands. These are St. Dabeoc's Heath {Daheocia polifolia), the Medi- terranean Heath {Erica mediterranea) (fig. 106), and Mackay's Heath (E. Machaii). A special significance attaches to these plants, inasmuch as they are absent from the whole of the northern portion of the Conti- nent, and do not reappear till we get as far south as the Pyrenees. Nor are these the only Connemara plants which have elsewhere an entirely south-western range in Europe. For instance, on every rock in Connemara, up to the tops of the highest hills, nestle the close rosettes of the well-known London Pride {Saxijraga umhrosa) ; we may find this plant all along -the West Coast of Ireland, but elsewhere, as a native, only in the Pyrenean region. Examining the flora more closely we dis- cover another stranger, this time a water plant — a little plant with a tuft of grassy, submerged leaves and an erect stem bearing a button-like head of greyish flowers. This little hydrophyte constitutes a very great puzzle, for it proves to be the Pipewort {Eriocaidon septangular e) (fig. 107), a North American species unknown on the Continent of Europe. It ranges up and down the West of Ireland, and reappears sparingly in the western isles of Scotland ; elsewhere it is confined exclu- sively to the northern United States and Canada. For the present we must only bear in mind the very remarkable distribution of this plant; its significance will appear later. Plenty of other interesting plants await us in Connemara, but with, these few examples of its most remark- able species we m.ust pass on to another scene. In the grand county of Kerry, the massive Devonian sandstones ond slates form mountain -folds which run north-east and south-west, pro- jecting far into the Atlantic in a series of noble promontories before they sink below the level of the ocean. The deep valleys between are often paved with the last fragments of the limestones that once arched over these great ridges, and their lower parts are filled with long fiord- like sea inlets. This, again, is a heathery country save on the lime- stone, where grass prevails ; and the great ribs of rock give shelter and allow of the growth of a considerable amount of native timber. In these woods, especially in the more inaccessible spots, among the Birch, Oak, Ash, Holly, and Yew that flourish there, w^e are surprised to meet with great trees of Arbutus Unedo (fig. 108), with their hand- some red trunks and evergreen foliage ; and it comes upon us in a flash that here is again an instance, as in Connemara, of a far southern plant inhabiting western Ireland, for the Arbutus is a member of the Mediter- ranean flora, growing in Spain, Italy, Greece, but not in the more northern parts of the Continent. Seeking for further evidence, we find among the rocks abundance not only of the now familiar London Pride, but also of its ally, the Kidney-leaved Saxifrage (Saxijraga Geum), elsewhere (sa\Te for a single newly discovered station in Mayo) ex- clusively a plant of the Pyrenean region. The undergrowth of the woods, too, is full of a handsome species of Spurge, which we identify as Euphorbia hiberna. This plant has its headquarters in south-west THE WILD FLO WEES OF THE WEST OF IRELAND. 303 Ireland, reappearing occasionally along the west coast as far north as Donegal; it is also met with in the south-west of England, but we do not meet it again till we approach the Mediterranean. Another Kerry plant with a similar distribution (south-west Ireland, south- west England, and south-west Europe) is the little Sihthorpia europaea. Again, the hills around are glorious in May with the great purple blooms of the large-flowered Butterwort {Pingnicula grandi- flora). This plant is southern, but not lowland, in its continental range, occurring on the Pyrenees and on the Alps. And, as in Conne- mara, we find associated with these southern species northern plants like the American Pipewort, and (in the adjoining county of Cork) the interesting American orchid Spiranthes Romanzoffiana, unknown in Europe outside of Ireland. The occurrence of the last-named plant is of very great interest, for it goes far to reinforce the suggestion sup- plied by the Pipewort, of an American element in the West Irish flora. A third species also comes in to join these two. Along the stream banks and in other wild situations we find in abundance the pretty little blue starry flowers and grassy leaves of the " Blue-eyed Grass " of Canada {Sisyrinchium angustifolium), another typical American plant, which is widely spread along the West Coast of Ireland. Turning northward now we must pay a brief visit to the strange district of Burren in county Clare, to which I referred in my lecture last year. This differs from Connemara and Kerry in being a limestone area. Instead of rugged heathery mountains formed of folded and crumpled slates or sandstones or quartzites, Burren presents a group of broad, undulating hills formed of horizontal beds of limestone. But its remarkable feature is that these hills are entirely bare of any cover- ing of clay or soil. The glaciers that smoothed over their slopes passed away without leaving any blanket of drift. Percolating water sinking into the vertical joints of the bare rock has dissolved out in- numerable drainage passages, by which any insoluble detritus has been carried off; and the grey rock, all water-carved and weather-worn, lies bare and naked, rising terrace upon terrace, or broken up into wilder- nesses of angular blocks of stone. Vegetable soil has slowly formed in innumerable crevices and pockets, and the vegetation, spreading out- wards from every httle centre, has covered up with a green carpet a good deal of the naked rock. But the aspect of the hills is still that of a waterless grey desert, and it is surprising to discover the wealth of rare plants tucked away in the crevices, just as it is surprising to find that this land of rock has quite a high value for sheep-grazing. The moist, warm climate is no doubt the chief contributory cause in both cases. Here on these hills, equally at sea-level and a thousand feet above it, we are struck at once with the abund- ance and luxuriance of several plants which we are accustomed to con- sider alpine species. The Mountain Avens (Dryas octopetala) is present in sheets, the most abundant plant over many square miles, its blossoms whitening the ground as far as the eye can reach, like daisies in pasture-land. A little earlier in the season an equally large X 2 304 JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY., area is decked witli the vivid blue flowers of tlie Spring Gentian ((Icn- tiana venia), abounding alil\e on tlie coastal sand-dunes and on the liill- tops. The Bearberry (iirclosia pliylos Vra-iirsi), loo, trails over every rock, with the Dwarf Junij)er {J iiiiipcrus ikiiki), the A'ernal Sand- wort (Arenaria verna), the rai'e little Evphrasia salishurgensis, and Saxifraga Sternhergii (fig. 109). And in striking contrast with these hardy alpine-loving species we find mixed with them tender plants of the south, which here grow further northw^ard than in any other country. The deep cracks in the limestone pavements, and also in vertical rocks, are filled with the Maidenhair (Adiantum Capillus-Veneris), growing in great luxuriance ; and still more suggestive of southern climes is a little orchid {Neotinea intacta), which flowers ih May among the Moun- tain Avens and Spring Gentian; it is found nowhere in the British Isles save in the west of Ireland, and elsewhere it is exclusively a plant of the sunny shores of the Mediterranean. Among this remarkable assemblage of northern and southern forms other striking plants grow in very unusual profusion, helping to emphasize the peculiar character of the flora — the Bloody Crane's-bill (Geranium sanguineum), the Wild Madder (Rubia peregrina), the Squinancy-wort (Asperula cynancliica), Blue Moor-grass (Sesleria caerulea), Stone Bramble (Ruhus saxatilis), and more locally the rare Hoary Rock-rose [Heliafithemuin vineale). Shrubby Cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa), and other interesting species, all set in an extraordinary profusion of Scale Fern and Hart's-tongue. These grey hills of stone, which at a short distance seem a mere desert, prove on closer acquaintance a veritable botanical paradise. Let us take one more West of Ireland scene — another limestone district, lying a hundred miles north of the last, in the counties of Sligo and Leitrim. Here, as in Clare, the grey rock still reposes undisturbed in horizontal sheets, as originally laid down, though now raised up to nearly 2000 feet above sea-le.vel. But in this district the Ice Age has not ground down the limestones into undulating hills. Instead, the weather, attacking the strong, vertical cracks or joints with which the rock is traversed, has by degrees eaten into the edges of the mass, and carved deep valleys across it, so that there now remains a lofty table- land, fringed with great grey cliff-walls and traversed by deep fertile vales, over which on each side the lofty limestone precipices stand imminent. The fertile boulder-clay which fills the valleys and covers the plain which surrounds the hill-masses, yields pleasant farm-land, with trees and green fields; the plateau itself, which still bears frag- ments of the newer sandy and shaley rocks that once covered the lime- stone, is densely clothed with, shaggy brown bog; and it is on the grey cliff-walls themselves that the botanist finds his harvest. Here, on Ben Bulben and its neighbours, is gathered together a very interesting assemblage of plants, mostly alpine in their general distribution. Con- spicuous among them is a little Sandwort {Arenaria ciliaia), a tiny plant forming green mats smothered in white blossoms, which is not found elsewhere in the British Islands. With it grow masses of Silene acaidis, Draha incana, Dryas octopeitala, Saxifraga aizoides, S. Jiypnoides, THE WILD FLOWERS OF THE WEST OF IRELAND. 305 S. oypositifoUa, EupJirasia salishiirgensis, Oxyria cligijna, Sesleria caerulea, Asplenium viride; wEile among the rarer concomitants are Saxifraga nivalis, Epilohimn alsinefolium, Poly gala grandiflora, Poa alpina, Aspidium Lonchitis, and many other interesting species. These all grow on the terraced limestone cliffs and on the steep taluses which subtend them, mostly at an elevation of about 1000 feet, and they form a delightful study for the botanist. In this district we again find evidence of that peculiar mixing of northern and southern types, and of that seeming indifference to questions of elevation which we have found to be so characteristic of Western Ireland. On the cliffs the Maidenhair joins the various alpine species at an elevation of 700 feet, and close by, at Eosses Point, the same fern grows on sea-rocks, accompanied by Saxifraga aizoides, Draha iyicaria, Sesleria caerulea, and Juniperus nana. We have seen, then, that the especial features of the West of Ireland flora consist, first, in the reduction of the number of species, as compared with more eastern tracts, leading to the absence of many famihar wild flowers; secondly, in the presence of a small number of rare species not found in the greater portion of the British Islands ; and, thirdly, in the mixing together at various elevations of what we have been accustomed to consider high-level and low -level plants. The cause of the first of these phenomena has been already suggested. As regards the third, the actual climatic and edaphic conditions which plants require are so complicated, and as yet so little known, that it is futile to throw out suggestions here. But as regards the second, I would like to emphasize the lessons which it teaches. These Mediter- ranean, Pyrenean, and North American species are, without doubt, strictly native in their Irish home. No theory as to their being early human introductions, though often put forward by the unlearned, will for a moment pass muster with the botanist who has studied the ques- tion, though it would be out of place here to detail his arguments. Furthermore, the distribution of these species suggests that they belong to a very old section of our flora. They have, as a whole, no peculiar adaptations which would allow them to negotiate successfully a journey in or over the sea; their seeds are less suited to either air- or water- carriage than those of hundreds of other Spanish or Mediterranean species which have not found their way to any part of our islands. Again, the entire absence of the southern plants from the middle parts of Ireland, England, and France tells against the theory that they came from their southern homes by the route that would be now, with the present distribution of land and sea, the most likely one. On the con- trary, the reappearance of some of the Irish-Pyrenean plants in the extreme south-west of F]ngland, and the occurrence there of several plants of similar type which do not extend to Ireland, such as Erica ciliaris and E. stricta, strongly support the view that we have here the relics of a vegetation which was once spread along a bygone European coast-line which stretched unbroken from Ireland to Spain. As to the American plants, the question is still more difficult, but the 306 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. further we study it the more we shall be inclined to arrive at a similar conclusion, and to account for the existence of these species in Ireland — and one of the most characteristic of them, the Pipewort, in western Scotland also — by the assumption of their migration across an ancient land surface which once extended across the North Atlantic, via Iceland and Greenland. Our study (Ji the West of Ireland flora has led us far afield indeed. Behind these modest, unfamiliar wild-fiowers, which one meets on the Gonnaught roadside, loom problems which take us back through tens of thousands of years, and which involve vast changes in the distribution of land and sea. Indeed, as we have seen, to understand the con- ditions which have determined the presence or absence of species in the district we have been considering, we have to look back to a period almost infinitely remote — back through the Tertiary and Secondary ] >eriods of the geologist to those primeval times w^hen the only vertebrate inhabitants of our globe were the armour-plated fishes of Silurian seas. SUEVIVALS AMONG PLANTS OF THE PAST. 307 SUEVIVALS AMONG PLANTS OF THE PAST. By Eev. Professor G. Henslow, M.A., V.M.H., (^c. [Read June 7, 1910.] Ea^olution as popularly understood is supposed to imply a gradual improvement in the structures of animals and plants, as developed through the past ages of the world, until the most perfect type of all, Man, closed the series. This is true in a sense, but it must be borne in mind that each and every kind was, and is, as perfectly adapted to its position in Hfe as it requires to be. The advancement is perhaps best seen in the fact that the adnlt forms of the earlier ages corresponded with the young or embryonic stages of later and existing types of the same groups. Thus the " tadpole and newt " stage of the Amphibia were the highest attained in the period when coal plants grew; the frog type is of a much later origin. But each group had its day and then died out ; so that, as a rule, it is only organisms of the latest geological eras that still exist. Yet a certain number of types of several ancient groups are represented at the present day, if not by identically the same species, by some more or less closely allied specific forms of the same genus ; or it may be that a different genus now stands for its ancient and extinct forebears. Thus, one of the oldest shells known, the impressions of which are found on slates near the top of Cader Idris, in Wales, was apparently just like the Lingula of to-day. The Nautilus, or type genus of the great family Nautilidae, which succeeded the Lingula in a subsequent period, is the sole generic survival ; while the vast number of Ammonite's, which were evolved out of the Nautilidae, are gone for ever. Similarly among plants survivals are still with us, and I purpose selecting some of the more interesting and better-known examples out of the great groups or classes of plants knowm as the higher Crypto- gams, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms, which last include Dicotyle- dons and Monocotyledons. As far as is known, only the first two have been found in the earliest or Primary strata, which ended with the Goal period, and in a stratum which covered them (Permian). The Secondary epoch ends with the Chalk. In the Secondary strata are found types which more resemble those of living forms. The Tertiary epoch begins with the Eocene strata — i.e. " Dawn of the New " periods. In these we begin to feel at home among the later fossil floras, especially in the next stratum or Miocene. Turning to living groups of the higher and woody-stemmed Crypto- ganis, those more or less represented among coal plants are the Horse- 308 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTTCTUVrURAr. SOCIETY. tails or EquisetuDi, the sole sui'viving genus of llie iiatin;al order, or family, Equisetaceae, its ancestors having been very numerous ages ago. The Lycopodiaceae, having five existing genera (Lycopodium, the humble club-moss, and Selaginella being familiar to all), were repre- sented by gigantic trees, 100 feet tall, but only of the Selaginella type; the ancestry of the club-mosses is at present unknown. Ferns or Filices now exist by thousands, but impressions looking exactly like, and formerly thought to be, ferns are now known to be of a higher nature. The most ancient tribes have but few living representatives, such as Osmundaceae, of which only the genera Osmnnda (our " Eoyal Fern ") and Todea exist. Another family, Marattiaceae , with four living genera, was also well represented in the Coal period. Such are survivals. It may be laid down as a general rule that where a group has only one or very few living forms to represent it, this fact implies a long-lost ancestry; and that if it be found fossil, it usually had a very wide distribution, both past and present, over the globe, for some of the later orders and genera are in this condition to-day. Thus, our Sweet Gale (Myrica Gale) is found in North America, on the mountains of Asia, and extends as far as China and Japan; while several species of Myrica are living at the Cape of Good Hope. Myrica is also known as a fossil. Another very general feature about fossil animals and plants is that the older types of any series are " generalized " in structure in that they show characters combined in one and the same genus, which become subsequently typical of distinct genera of a later period. Thus the names Ichthyosaurus, or "fish-lizard," and Hyaenarctos, " hyaena-bear," indicate this fact among animals. So it is with plants ; a very common form of impression on coal- shales is one of plants with wedge-shaped leaves having the veins repeatedly or " dichotomously " forking. Hence the name Spheno- phyllnm, " wedge-leaf." Now, this is allied to the horsetails as well as to Psilotum and Tmesipteris, two living genera of the Lycopods. Similarly what were formerly supposed to be ferns from the foliage are now found to have naked seeds, and are therefore gymnosperms. Of our survivals among Cryptograms, the horsetail (Equisetuin) is a conspicuous example. Though a solitary genus now, there were many allies in the Coal period; and the oldest known, Archeocalamiies , more nearly resembles the living horsetails than later forms of the same group. As with Lycopods, so with Ferns, the earliest kinds, as we have stated, are now represented by tribes having few genera left. Other tribes of Ferns with few genera, as Schizaeaceae (three) and Gleich- eniaceae (four), are found fossil in the Secondary epoch. With regard to Marat liaceae, tlie sporangia, unlike those of the more recent and abundant living- forms, were not separate but coherent into oblong or circular button-like " synaiigia." Thus Kavlfussia, only SURVIVALS AMONG PLANTS OF THE PAST. 309 known in Far Eastern regions, closely resembles the fossil PtijclLO- carpiis. Between the spore-bearing Cryptogams and true seed plants or Gymnosperms were the fossil Pteridosperms — i.e. " Fern-seed plants," which combine the characters of both classes. These were plants resembling ferns in th,e foliage, and were therefore supposed to belong to that group, until the reproductive organs were found attached to the fronds. They, however, bore ovides and seeds resembling those of Cycas. The stamens, however, were nearly " peltate " and find resemblances in several existing genera, as Zamia, Taxiis, Araucaria, &c., as well as the sporangia of horsetails. We now come to the seed plants. The difference arose by the macrosporangia having only one instead of many macrospores, and that one forming an ovule, provided with one coat (the secimdine) only. This was prolonged into a tubular or inverted funnel-shaped process, the broad base being callecl the pollen-chamber, as the pollen fell into it. The earliest kind of pollen-chamber was formed by the 7iucelhis of the ovule itself, and this is still the case in Cycas and Ginkgo. The micro- sporangia, on the other hand, constituted the anther, the microspores becoming pollen-grains. Gymnosperms, which arose in the Coal period, are now represented by three families only — Cycadeae, with nine genera, Chietaceae, with three, and Coniferae, divided into six tribes and thirty-one genera. One tribe, Taxeae, has six genera, of which Taxus, the yew tree, and the Gi7ikgo of Japan are survivors from the distant past. A very common feature of the earliest as well as of surviving genera is the presence of catkins, consisting of bracts closely arranged on an axis, with or without stamens or ovules in their axils, but in Angio- sperms there are, of course, pistils. Such is the characteristic feature of many living trees, which are also presumably survivals, from the paucity of the genera in their families respectively, as is seen in the Amentiferae — i.e. " Catkin-bearers " — as well as in Myrica and Casuarina, sole existing representatives of their families, both of which are therefore doubtless primitive types. Though it is customary to say that Gymnosperms have no carpels or pistils, authorities differ on this point, for the latest view regards a not infrequent presence of an imperfect integument outside the ovule, mostly free from it, as the pistil ; but in all cases it remains open above, so that the ovule has to receive the pollen directly within the pollen- chamber. Whatever be the origin of the pollen-chamber, it occurs in all living Gymnosperms. A characteristic feature of the fossil Cordaianthus, and several Gymnosperms still living, as well as of the Avientiferae, is to have the anther-cells borne singly, and not coherent in pairs, as usually prevails in stamens. Perhaps this want of cohesion between the two pollen-sacs of the anther may have been a result of the primitive and prevailing feature of dichotomy of the ribs and veins in leaves, as seen in the frequently lobed 310 JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. blade of Ginkgo and in the Sphenophylluros. Even in those of Cordaites, the ribs of which seem to be parallel, the veins are described both by Dr. Scott* and Miss Stopesf as dichotomoiis. The ribs themselves probably branch from the base, though running subsequently parallel, just as in the phyllodes of Lathyrus Nissolia, Oxalis bupleurifolia and species of Australian Acacia. These long " leaves " with parallel ribs of the Cordaites have been compared with those of Monocotyledons, but the intermediate vena- tion is different. In the latter class the ribs are mostly joined by hori- zontal cross-bars at right angles, apparently to secure strength, for the blade is weakened by the influence of water; whereas in phyllodes of Dicotyledons the veins start at an acute angle, and when they are broad the veins become reticulated. Hence, it seems probable that as the Gordmtes are xerophytes, the supposed leaves may be really phyllodes, like those of Acacia. The vertical, instead of horizontal, position of the latter is probably due to the necessity of avoiding injury from the loss of heat by radiation. :|: We will now leave the primary and secondary epochs and come dow^n to the Miocene of the Tertiary epoch, of which fossil plants have been found in various parts of the northern regions of the globe. At Oeningen, in North Switzerland, 465 species are known, of which 166 are trees and shrubs, including many living American genera, as Sequoia (the "Big-tree," or Wellingtonia of California), Oaks, Liriodendron (the Tulip tree). Maple, Plane, &c. At Mull and Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, Sequoia also occurs. On the West Coast of Greenland (70° N. Lat.) a fossil flora exists, including the Walnut, Vine, Magnolia, &c. Even at Grinnell Land (80'^ N. Lat.) off the West Coast of Greenland, are the Norway Spruce, the deciduous cypress {Taxodium) and Sequoia. Another site is Colorado. Now, omitting the more Arctic districts, all these sites of the fossil Miocene, viz., Colorado, British Isles, and Oeningen, lie between 30^ and 60° N. Lat., while the existing floras characterized by having descendants of the Miocene, viz., East Coast of North America and Japan, lie between 20° and 40° N. Lat. The question arises, how did they get to these two far distant countries ? There are about 100 genera common to both ; seventy-seven genera are also common to the Swiss Miocene, of which twenty-six are not now living in Europe. Iceland and Greenland have them as well. It appears, then, that in the early Miocene period, or perhaps in the latter part of the preceding Eocene, or the intermediate " Oligo- cene," times, the Arctic regions were favoured with a temperature now prevailing in the warmer temperate zone, and as the cold drew on they were driven southwards, where land w^as continuous, till they settled along the 40th parallel of latitude. Obstructions, such as the mountains * New Phytologist, vol. ii. p. 92, t "A Theoretical Origin of Endogens," Joi/rn. Lin. Soc. Bot. xxix. p. 485. X I have elsewhere suggested that the long parallel veined "leaves" of Monocotyledon are all really phyllodes, the blades being restored in Saglttaria, Ta7nvs, &o. Loc. clt. p. 517. SURVIVALS AMONG PLANTS OF THE PAST. 811 of North-West America and Scandinavia, and of the sea on tlie South of Greenland, prevented a continuous Miocene flora to be formed all round the world, Japan and East-North America being now the two most characteristic areas containing the survivals of this Miocene flora. The following are a few well-known types common to both : Magnolia, Nelumhium, Ampeloysis, Aesculus, Wistaria, Cassia, Hydrangea, Diervilla, Catalpa, Phlox, Musa, Taxodium, Rhus, Juglans, &c. The Southern Hemisphere is as equally characterized by survivals as the Northern. Studying the floras of South America, South Africa, and Australasia, many genera are found to be common to two or all three of the Southern Continents. Perhaps the id^mily Proteaceae is one of the widest in distribution. It is in all three of the districts mentioned, as well as in India and the South Pacific Islands, and is found fossil in Switzerland and North America. Of familiar genera, Fuchsia and Calceolaria have their home in South America, but two species of each reappear in New Zealand. Myrica (including our Sweet Gale) is found in North America, Europe, Asia, West China, and Japan, and has several species at the Cape. Geum occurs in all three Southern Continents. To explain these occurrences, we find the 2000-fathom line unites all three continents by submarine " peninsulas," if one may so express it, the 3000-fathom line forming intermediate "bays," indicating the fact of a large antarctic continent formerly connecting these southern and now widely separated lands ; so that at the present day there are some forty-eight species or representatives common to Austral- asia and South* America, and forty-nine genera are represented by closely allied species. A few well known may be mentioned: Drosera, Lobelia, Oxalis, Gunnera, and' Lomaria. The Cape is similarly con- nected with Australasia by Pelargonium and Restiaceae, &c., while the 500 species of Heath (Erica) are also represented in Australia by the alhed order Epacridaceae, none of these being in common with South America. 312 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. FIFTY YEAES AMONG PANSIES AND VIOLAS. By James Grieve, F.E.H.S. [Read June 21, 1910.] It was in 1854 that I began my gardening career, and from the beginning I took an interest in the Pansy. In those far-back days the Enghsh Show Pansy was the only type grown, and I can well remember the noted English growers of that day — Charles Turner and W. Bragg of Slough, William Dean of Shipley, and Henry Hooper of Bath. Scotch growers were also turning their attention in earnest to Pansies at that tune. Mr. John Downie had a few years previously resigned his situation as gardener at Southbank Park, Edinburgh, and had, with Mr. Laird, established the firm of Downie & Laird. Mr. John Laing was still gardener at Dysart House. Messrs. Dicksons & Co., even then an old firm. Handy side of Musselburgh, Lightbody of J^alkirk, White & Sinclair of Paisley, Syme & Middlemass of Glasgow, were all trade growers of Pansies. In the amateur classes of those days two men who were to become famous were competing against each other^ — Dr. Stuart and James Dobbie. Among the dark self varieties in vogue were ' Duke of Perth ' and * St. Andrews.' White selfs were a poor lot, and yellow selfs not much better. ' Cherub,' a yellow self sent out about 1860 by Hooper, of Bath, was the first really good yellow self that appeared. There were then no cream or blue selfs. Our great aim was to get flowers with solid blotches and distinct markings, with an eye in the centre of the flower. After five years' experience in private establishments I entered the service of Messrs. Dicksons & Co., Edinburgh, in 1859. In February 1860 Messrs. Dicksons' Pansy-grower, Daniel Hafferman, an Irish- man, left them to become nursery-manager to Messrs. Imrie, Ayr, and I was promoted to take charge of the Pansies, and continued to do so for the next thirty-six years — i.e. till 1895. In 1860 all the best Pansies were grown in pots, mostly 8 inch, plunged in ashes in cold frames. Great pains were taken to secure the best loam, which was mixed with old cow manure. Artificials were almost unknown then, and I often think it would be better if they were unknown still. It would be better, I am sure, for tlie constitution not only of our Pansies but of our Potatos. I was the first to introduce the practice of plant- ing Pansies out in cold frames to obtain exhibition blooms, and this plan is now universally followed. The Show Pansy continued to be tlie lending type of Pansy up till a])oi]t 1870, great improvements in its form, sul)stance, and markings being made. The Faiu'\- P;ms\' lundo its ;ii)))(,';ir;iiK'e in Scotland about FIFTY YEARS AMONG PANSIES AND VIOLAS. 318 1S61, when it was grown by Dow^nie, Laird, & Laing. I well remember the first two varieties — Dandie Dinmont ' and ' Dii Hamil. ' Messrs. Downie, Laird, & Laing showed them in the Experimental Gardens, Edinburgh, at the Show' of the Royal Caledonian Society. I remember them so well because they were shown in row^s of six blooms, one variety alternating with the other. Many strange and forcible phrases were used to condemn the newcomers by the old florists, but their novel and gaudy colours and greater size of bloom wrought gradually into the favour of at least the ladies, with the usual result that the men had to follow suit. From a roughness almost like that of a Scotch terrier, the Fancy Pansy was licked into shape, and by 1880 had almost eclipsed the Show Pansy and become a universal favourite. The Fancy Pansies were bred entirely from the continental intro- ductions. They were never crossed with the Show Pansy. That would have made confusion worse confounded. The method adopted in raising new varieties w^as simply to take seed from the best-formed and gayest-coloured. From the very beginning of my career I have been specially attracted to the Yiola, and began by crossing, wdien I was very young, all the species I could obtain, including Viola lutea from the Pent- land Hills, V. cornnta from the Pyrenees, V. stricta from India, obtained through Miss Hope of Wardie, and V.. amoena from Moffat. I started to cross-fertihze all these w-itli pollen of the Show Pansy, and the results were highly satisfactory. I never got any good results with the reverse cross. In these days there was a battle between the so-called Bedding Pansies and the Violas (T use the word Viola here in its modern application) and it is still going on. My friend Mr. Cuthbertson may have something to say on this. To illustrate the state of matters, forty years ago we had Bedding Pansies (which were simply Show Pansies with good bedding habits), such as * Blue King,' ' Lilacina,' * Holyrood,' ' Tory,' and ' Regina ' (white), and * Henderson's Golden Bedder,' and Violas, such as * Golden Gem,' ' Alpha,' and * Grievei.' The march of development, so far as varieties raised by me is concerned, is represented by * Sovereign,' ' Pilrig Park,' ' Scotia,' ' Acme,' * Royalty,' * Edina,' ' Formosa,' * Virginahs,' 'Bulhon,' 'Dawn of Day,' * Merchiston Castle,' and I consider I reached the high-water mark recently with ' Redbraes Yellow ' and * Redbraes White,' 'Royal Scot' and 'Redbraes Bronze.' In the beginning, as I have already said, my varieties were all obtained by crossing the wild types with pollen from Show Pansies. For example, 7. cornuta x ' Dux ' Show Pansy gave ' Vanguard ' (purple); V. stricta (improved) x ' Sovereign ' gave ' Ariel ' and ' Bul- lion ' ; V. cornuta improved (named ' Perfection ') x ' Sunray ' Fancy Pansy gave ' Lilacina ' ; V. cornuta (' Perfection ') x ' Dux ' Show Pansy gave ' Tory. ' All my recent varieties have been raised without the aid of cross- fertihzation. I have simply saved seed from the best varieties existing 314 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. in their respective classes, selected those which I considered improve- ments in colour or habit, and tried them for several years. Contemporaries with my early work were few, as the Viola was scoffed at by many traders. I well remember my first exhibit of Violas in London. It was in 1870 at the Crystal Palace. I staged for Messrs. Dicksons forty-eight varieties in bunches of Bedding Violas and Pansies, and instead of booking orders I had to stand the scoffs and jeers of many, including George Glenny, who gave me a terrible dressing for bringing such weeds such a distance. But I was not discouraged ; in fact, I rather enjoyed the castigation, and went home determined to persevere and work out my ideas of what was wanted as a bedding plant, with the result that when the boom came we were ready for it, and Messrs. Dicksons reaped a rich reward, for many seasons selling a very large stock completely out at 25s. per 100 for general varieties, and for all new varieties we obtained 2s. Qd. each, and in many seasons could not meet the demand. In these days (1870 to 1885) all the Violas were grown in thumb pots. The cuttings were put in in September in frames, and when rooted, potted up into small pots, being sent out in this way in spring. In Scotland Messrs. Dicksons had no serious rivals in the raising and introduction of Violas until Messrs. Dobbie took up their cultiva- tion about 1890, although good work had been done in the way of raising by Dr. Stuart and Mr. John Baxter. PANSIES AND VIOLAS. 315 PANSIES AND VIOLAS. By William Cuthbertson, J. P., F.E.H.S. [Read Jun© 21, 1910.] When I was honoured last summer by being asked to lecture on " Pansies " I at once thought it would add interest to duch a lecture if I could get associated with me Mr. James Grieve. Mr. Grieve readily consented, and his interesting contribution precedes this. My only regret is that you are not able to hear him deliver it himself, as you Would greatly enjoy his virile personality. It would come like a breeze from his native hills. It is now over thirty years since I joined the firm of Dobbie & Co. Mr. James Dobbie was then in full vigour, and was noted, among other things, for Pansies. I remember several times trying to induce him to grow Violas, but he would have none of them. They are only " bad Pansies ' ' was his oft-repeated remark ; ' ' leave them to Grieve and Baxter." In th^t you see the old florists' condition of mind. To them form or outline and clear, distinct markings were everything. I know it has become the fashion to despise the doings of the old florists and even to cast ridicule on them ; but to those who, like myself, were trained in their school, and who knew them personally, the only feelings we shall ever cherish towards them will be those of admiration and respect. Let me give one example : You must all have heard of the devotion of the old Scotch hand-loom weavers to- their flowers. In the Paisley and Kilbarchan districts such weaver-florists were legion, and one of their first favourites was the laced Pink. I can remember one of the best among them — John Love — old John Love, as we used to call him — telling me he wanted nothing to make him happy if he could only have a few square yards of ground on which to grow his loved Pinks to the end — " till the call came," as he himself phrased it. We do not often see devotion like that now to the simpler flow^ers such as Pinks, Pansies, and Sweet Williams, but such men did their share of the world's floral work, and did it well. From 1860 to 1880 the old English or Show Pansy (fig. Ill) was gradually being perfected, and the fine varieties then in existence have not since been surpassed. I can remember the best among dark selfs in 1880 were * Beacon,' ' Eobert Black,' ' The Shah.' The finest among yeUow selfs, * Captain Hayter,' ' Golden Lion,' Yellow King.' The finest white selfs, 'Alpha,' 'Mrs. Dobbie,' ' Janey Anderson.' The finest yellow grounds, * David Christie,' 'Defoe,' 'Eobert Burns.' T-he finest white grounds, ' Blue Gown, ' * Jane Grieve, ' ' Village Maid. ' Fortunately, we are able to see representatives of these classes at the present time, as they are still grown. 316 JOUENAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. But even thirty years ago the Show Pansy was being hard pressed by the Fancy or Belgian Pansy (fig. 112), which is so well known to all present. I do not know whether it is because I have a hankering after old things or not, but I think the Fancy Pansies of the "eighties," ' May Tate,' ' Evelyn Bruce,' ' Kenneth Brodie,' ' Miss Bhss,' * Mrs. Jamieson,' ' Mrs. John Downie,' ' Catherine Agnes,' ' David Eennie,' ' Mrs. E. H. Wood,' ' Wm. Guthbertson, ' and others were as fine and distinct in their markings as any we have to-day. We have certainly Fig. 111. — Show or Old English Pansies. 1, Dark self; 2, White self; 3, Yellow ground; 4, White ground. increased the size, and I am sure we grow them better, but the quality is not better, or I am much mistaken. Now what can I say this afternoon that will be helpful to tliose who would like to grow good Pansies (not Violas^ — ^of them I will speak later) ? They can be grown in two ways, from cuttings or from seed. Let nie speak first about growing named sorts. Speaking generall}^, they will not give satisfaction in dry, sunny situations. The wild types love the shelter of a liedgc ]);ink, and lie who imitates Nature's conditions will succeed best. 'I'lic morning or late afternoon sun will do good; the Fig. 112. — Viola ' Christiana ' after standing three years in the open. Note the yellow eye. {To face page 316.) PANSIES AI^D VIOLAS. 317 full glare of the sun from eleven to three o'clock will make named Pansies unhappy. Select, then, a position in the garden where the plants will enjoy themselves, and you will be amply repaid. Prepare the ground in autumn by deep cultivation, enriching liberally with half -decomposed cowdung if it can be had. Fork over the surface in January or February. Take the plants from the cold frames in March with as much soil adhering to the roots as possible, and, with careful attention to watering and other details, splendid flowers will be had during most of the summer. To obtain fine strong plants for spring jilanting, cuttings should be inserted in cold frames in a shady position from July onwards to September, and named varieties should certainly be allowed to winter in frames. Now about varieties. I think, if I give twelve or eighteen names of reliable varieties, that will be enough for those who are not exhibitors. ' Hugh Mitchell,' ' Archie Milloy,' ' Holroyd Paul,' ' Hall Eobertson,' ' Mrs. E. P. Butler,' ' John Picken,' ' Mrs. A. Ireland,' ' Mrs. James Smith,' 'Mrs. H. Stewart,' 'Miss Neil,' 'Miss A. B. Douglas,' 'Margaret Fife' (fig. 114), ' Eobert McCaughie,' 'Mrs. Campbell' (yellow), ' Thos. Stevenson,' ' James McNab,' ' Neil McKay,' ' Eev. D. E. Williamson.' These are fine sorts and good growers. The Raising of Pa^isies from Seed. — This is perhaps the best way of all for those who desire a good display, as seedlings are always hardier than plants from cuttings, and they may be planted out with safety in most places in autumn, thus ensuring a longer period of blooming. From May onwards seed may be sown according to the treatment it is intended to give the seedlings. If sowing is to be done out of doors or in a cold frame, I should recommend the end of May. If to be sown in boxes in a greenhouse and carefully looked after, a month later will be time enough. The great object to be aimed at is to obtain by the end of September fine strong, stubby plants with three or four shoots break- ing at the base and well rooted. From the seed boxes or seed bed the plants ought to be transplanted once, say, in August. Eesults will depend much on the quality of the seed sown, and everyone should make sure of obtaining a high-grade article. Let me say that cheap Pansy seed cannot be good. It is exceedingly difficult to save Pansy seed in quantity in this country, and we are therefore dependent to a large extent on foreign seed. To give an idea of the range in quality, wholesale firms like Benary arid Vilmorin quote Pansy seed as low as Is. and as high as 505. the ounce. Genuine home-saved seed from named varieties is always difficult to procure, but the highest grade of foreign seed will give excellent results. Two years ago I saw several large beds of Pansies in the garden of Mr. Walsh, the schoolmaster of Birch, in Essex. I never saw stronger, healthier Pansy plants in my life. They were seedlings which Mr. Walsh told me he sowed in boxes placed under a north wall on June 27th the year previous, transplanted into a bed facing west early in August, and finally planted where they were to flower at the end of September. Before planting out several had thrown flowers, but these were picked VOL. XXXVI. Y 318 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. off, and I think this is one of the secrets of getting seedhng phmts hke ( Pansies, Pentstemons, Antirrhinums, &c., to winter outside — to rigidly prevent them blooming. They then make every effort themselves to survive to carry out their life's work. Mr. Yv'^alsh had no loss at all ' during the winter. At Easter they were in full bloom, and such blooms — hundreds and hundreds — well over three inches in diameter — capital 1 flowers, most of them. One frequently sees large-flowered, most | brilliantly coloured Pansies for sale in London shops and in Covent | Garden, but everyone who buys them, takes them home, and plants Fig. 114.— Faxcy Pansy 'Margaret Fife.' them, is disappointed. 1 know, because I have tried it several times. The reason is this : the plants- are specially grown and specially fed to produce the blooms which make them, sell, and this exertion, coupled with the aiitempt to transplant them when in a flush of growth, ends in disaster. Anyone imitating the procedure of the market grower under his conditions would get similar results, and the results would be con- tinued if the plants were not moved and the old flowers picked off. The strains used are splendid ones, and the results of many years' selection. They resemble in many cases a part of the goodwill of a business, and are carefully treasured by their owners. PANSTES AND VIOLAS. 319 Coming to Violas (fig. 110), one of the gardening sensations of last century was the spring bedding at Cliveden carried out by Mr. John : Fleming. Violas were largely used, and became known as Cliveden ; Yellow, Cliveden Purple, Cliveden White, and Cliveden Blue. They ' ■ were most effective for the purpose for which they were used. They were, of course, much nearer to the wild types in habit of growth and form of flower than our modern Violas. The latter are the creations of a host I of raisers, nearly all of whom I have known personally during the last thirty years. Here, to-day, I shall only name those who were the pioneers in the v/ork — Grieve, of Dicksons & Co., Baxter of Daldowie, Dr. Stuart, Dr. Dickson of Hartree, the brothers William and Eichard ; Dean, all of whom except Mr. Grieve are now gone. In the popu- : larizing of Violas, or, as he persists in calling them. Tufted Pansies, no man has done better work than Mr. William Eobinson. In the early days he persistently figured them in colours in ** The Garden," I and I have at home now pictures of 'Jackanapes,' 'Quaker ^ Maid,' ' Duchess of Fife,' ' Hartree ' and other old varieties. What impresses one in this connection is the persistency of some of the old Violas. I have before me a catalogue issued by Dicksons of i; Edinburgh in 1880, and I find in it 'Archibald Grant,' 'Canary,' t * Blue King,' ' Countess of Kintore,' ' Holyrood,' ' Grievei,' ' Lilacina,' ' Sovereign,' and ' The Tory,' all of which are still grown, and one or two of which have not yet been superseded. Advancing sixteen years, I find another interesting list in the official Eeport of the trial of Violas in Eegent's Park, held under the auspices of the Third Viola Conference, In that list we find ' Marchioness,' ' Countess of Hopetoun,' ' Pencait- land,' and ' Snowflake ' given among the best whites, and any list of ' the best whites prepared to-day must contain ' Snowflake ' and ' Pen- caitland ' — though I believe the modern ' Snowflake ' (fig. 113) is an ; improved form. t * Sylvia ' is given among creams, and it is the best still. * Sul j phurea ' is among the primroses, and none to-day possess a better habit. ' The yellows in 1886 have all been eclipsed except ' Bullion. ' Other i old names which appear and still survive are ' True Blue, ' ' Archibald I Grant,' ' Favourite,' ' Wm. Neil,' and ' J. B. Eiding.' I I do not propose to deal with exhibition Violas. If I were addressing an audience in the industrial centres of the North or in I Scotland, they would not thank me unless I told them which Violas j produced the biggest blooms and made up into the best exhibition sprays. I am sure you desire to know which are the hardiest, the earliest to bloom, and the most floriferous. Three years ago I startea an experiment in Essex to discover which varieties possessed these merits. I collected from the leading growers jail the varieties they recommended for autumn planting, and in j October I planted them in an open field in Essex. Time will not allow me to go fully into the details of the trial — these will be found in a book written by me and recently published by Messrs. Jack. It must jserve to tell you which have survived satisfactorily over the three I ' Y 2 320 JOUENAL OF THE EOYAL HORTICULTUEAL SOCIETY. intervening winters without the shghtest protection of any kind, [ and have grown into splendid clumps twelve to eighteen inches in diameter. I consider the survival satisfactory if 75 per cent, or more have lived. The following varieties have stood that test : — Whites. — ' Peace,' ' Seagull,' ' Pencaitland, ' ' Christiana ' (fig. 112) (' White Beauty ' very late). I Cream. — ' Sylvia.' Yellows. — 'Klondyke,' ' Grievei,' 'Mrs. E. A. Cade.' Shades of Blue. — ' Eoyal Scot,' 'Blue Duchess,' ' Lilacina,' ' ' Florizel,' ' Wm. Neil.' | Purple. — ' Jubilee ' (* Edina,' very late). Fancy. — * Blue Cloud,' ' Mrs. Chichester.' Fifty to seventy-five per cent, of some remarkably fine sorts have survived, and these include favourites such as ' Snowflake,' ' Eedbraes Yellow,' 'Walter Welsh,' * Wm. Lockwood,' 'Iliffe,' 'Primrose Dame,' ' Archbald Grant,' 'Mauve Queen,' 'Maggie Mott,' 'Blue Eock,' ' Lady Marjorie,' * Bridal Morn,' * Councillor Watters.' So much for our experience in Essex. In the North, at Edinburgh, j: Mr. McHattie, the well-known Superintendent of the City Gardens, ' finds the following most satisfactory: 'Blue Bell,' ' Eoyal Scot,' ' Saughton Blue,' 'Maggie Mott,' 'Bullion,' 'Eedbraes Yellow, ' Alexandra ' (white). I can testify to the marvellously fine effect Mr. McHattie obtains with his new blue planted in conjunction with whites and yellows, and allowed to stand for two or three years. ' Saughton Blue ' I should not term a Viola, because it has, like * Lilacina,' a blotch on i the under petal. Mr. Grieve said the battle between Violas and Bedding Pansies was still going on and I might have something to say about it. All I have to say is, that in catalogues varieties which are rayed, rayless, or blotched should be stated as such. For some reason or ! other the blotched varieties are hardiest. I Here I might say a word about a class of Violas called ' Violetta ' or i * Miniature.' Its origin was a variety named ' Violetta,' raised by Dr. | Stuart of Chirnside. The habit is remarkably close and compact and almost truly perennial in character. The blossoms are small and sweetly scented. For edgings and rockwork they are most valuable. In " The Garden " of June 1910 there is a beautiful coloured plate of Violettas, most of which have been raised by Mr. D. B. Crane of High gate — one of the best friends the Viola has in the South. i I regret that the Eoyal Horticultural Society has not recently held \ a trial of Violas, but I can quite well understand that the soil conditions | at Wisley are unsuitable. Much, however, may be done to make very ' light soils suitable if the ground be cultivated in August and thoroughly enriched with a very heavy dressing of cow manure and the plants put out in October. At Chiswick in the old days very fine trials were held, and time has proved that the majority of the awards then made were right. In conclusion I think it would be better to .anticipate a quesiion PANSIES AND VIOLAS, 321 which I have been asked hundreds of times, What is the difference between Pansies and Violas? Pansies being largely bred from V. tricolor, an annual, are less perennial in their character than Violas, which, as you have heard from Mr. Grieve, were raised from true perennial species on the maternal side. But nowadays the distinction is an arbitrary one of florists. Generally speaking, Violas have no solid markings like the blotches of Pansies, and are best fitted on account of habit and purity of colour for all kinds of bedding work. 322 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. VIOLAS AT WISLEY, 1904-1910. The following list shows in descending order the behaviour of a number of varieties of Violas at Wisley, where they were first planted for trial purposes in 1904 (see Jouenal E.H.S., voL xxxi. (1906), pp. 240-244). The plants have been grown continuously, without watering in the summer and without protection in the winter. Group 1. — Have grown and flowered well every year. Violetta. Kate Hay. Ardwell Gem. Archibald Grant. Klondyke. Blue Bell. Bobbie's Blue Bedder Group 2. — Succeeded not quite so well. Lucy Franklin. Amy Barr. Flower of Spring. Maggie Mott. Primrose Dame. Eldorado. Blue Cloud. Blue Duchess. Group 3. — Succeeded fairly well. White Empress. | Formidable. ! Jennie. i Lord Elcho. I Lizzie Paul. White Duchess. Duchess of Fife. Group 4. — Grew and flowered rather poorly. Nellie. Eoyal Sovereign. Mrs. 0. F. Gordon. Edina (1906-1910). Group. 5. — Grew and flowered poorly. Mrs. J. W. McCrae. Mary Eobertson. Mrs. James Lindsey. Lark. Eobin. Symphony. J. C. Erskine. Miss Eobertson. Charles Jordan. Blue Boy. Admiral of the Blues. Ada Fuller. Saturn. Mrs. Brousson. Bessie Clarke. Councillor Watters. Jennie McCall. TWO INSECTS AFFECTING WHEAT AND BARLEY CROrS. 323 TWO INSECTS AFFECTING WHEAT AND BAKLEY CEOPS. By Feed Exock, F.L.S. [Read July 19, 1910.] It will be better probably to confine my remarks to one or two of the worst of the insects attacking wheat which have made their appear- ance in Great Britain, than to attempt to deal with all that are known, for their name is legion. It will be within the recollection of many that in the year 1886 the "Hessian Fly," which in the United States of America does an enormous amount of damage, amounting to hundreds of thousands of pounds per annum, was discovered by Mr. George Palmer, of Eevells Hall, Hertford, who found it doing considerable damage to the barley. Few entomologists were acquainted with the appearance or life-history of the pest at that time, and it was practically unknown to those who were ofFLcially connected with agriculture. Indeed, though twenty-four years have passed since then, much ignorance still prevails concerning it, even among those whose business it should be to make themselves acquainted with the pests of our crops. I have been , frequently asked " What is the ' Hessian Fly ' like? " "How does it affect the wheat?" Sec. I think the best reply to these questions will be to describe the entire life-history as I worked it out in the fields at Eevells Hall, where Mr. Palmer first dis- GOYered it, and to whom I am greatly indebted not only for facilities for making observations of its habits, but also for supplying me with screenings during three seasons, so enabling me to confirm its life-history, which, though the Hessian Fly had been known in America for nearly a hundred years, had never been worked out. I was also able to disprove satisfactorily Wagner's statement that the Hessian Fly could not have been introduced into the United States in the straw mattresses of the Hessian troops, as the time taken in travelling from Hesse-Cassel to Long Island — four months — would be too long for the larvae to survive. On March 9, 1889, I received from Mr. Palmer a small bag of screenings of the harvest of 1887. On examination of these I picked out over one hundred puparia, all apparently dead; but, on carefully opening some, I found the contained maggot to be just alive — and only just. These I placed on damp soil, the moisture from which revived them in the course of a few days ; and ultimately some changed to pupae, from which the first fly appeared on May 9, 1889, and others followed in a few days after, having been in a retarded state for two years, a much longer time than that occupied by the Hessian troops in their journey from Hesse-Cassel to Long Island, and fully justifying the 324 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. name of the " Hessian Fly." This retardation of development may, if disregarded, lead to immense damage being done. The first figure is from a pliotograph showing the actual appear- ance of a number of dan-iaged barley plants, such as first attracted the attention of Mr. Palmer, who, like a sensible man, examined into the cause of so many stalks being buckled down ; and by stripping off the loaf-sheath at once disclosed the now well-known " flax-seed " puparia. This, then, is the appearance presented by Hessian My attack. I am particularly desirous of impressing this buckled-down appearance upon all who take notice of their crops (fig. 115). The fly is a very insignificant creature, barely three-sixteenths of an inch in length, of a slaty colour, and in its habits very shy. I have seen only three or four specimens flying in the fields, and these but a short distance above the ground. Fig. 115. — A Number of Barley Plants infested with the grubs of the Hessian Fly. (Greatly reduced.) They emerge from the pupae in May, and after mating the female lays its eggs (some 150 in number). Flying to a hanging leaf, she settles upon its upper surface with her head toward the stalk, and, bringing the tip of her body down, she protrudes her tubular ovipositor until it rests along the channel of the mid-rib; an orange- coloured cylindrical egg is extruded and adheres to the leaf ; the fly moves forward a short distance and lays another, and so on until four or five, sometimes more or less, have been laid. This process is repeated upon other leaves until her supply is exhausted, when she dies. Now all the eggs have been laid with the head end towards the stem; so that, as soon as they hatch, the tiny maggots have nothing to do but proceed along the channel of the mid-rib until they reach the stem, when they force themselves between the leaf -sheath and it until further progress is stopped by the knot. Here they turn their body half-way round, bringing the mouth organs into contact with the stem, against which they then commence to rasp, feeding upon the exudations. TWO INSECTS AFFECTING WHEAT AND BARLEY CROPS. 325 and slowly but surely so weakening the stalk that by the time (about four weeks) of reaching full growth it gives way ^nd bends down to the ground. The larva during the feeding stage is of a white colour, with a slight greenish line down its back. Kemaining in the same position, the larva, having done feeding, changes to a chestnut colour, the outer skin hardening in the straw. This is the quiescent puparium stage (fig. 116), the one in which the Hessian Fly was introduced into Great Britain and elsewhere. At this stage I would call particular attention to the fact that the puparium has its head down and its mouth next the stalk, a position Fig. 116. — Section of fallen Barley showing the puparium of the Hessian Fly in situ, (x 6 diam.) in which it would be impossible for the fly to emerge, as it would have to penetrate the stalk ; and then, supposing that this was done, the fly would be a prisoner within the hollow stem betw^een the two knots. Some entomologists, in their haste to account for all and everything, have fallen into serious error in connection with the small chitinous apparatus, termed the anchor process, on the third segment of the mature larva found within the puparium- — a stage so different from most other larval conditions on reaching maturity that a few words of explanation may be of interest to those who are not entomologists. From the first appearance of the tiny larva of a moth or butterfly to its perfect state, its transformations are nothing more than a constant throwing-off of its outer skin ; after the last moult the pupa is evolved, then the perfect insect. 326 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL TTORTTCULTFRAL S()C!1RTY. With the larva of the Hessian Fly the last skin is not thrown off, but simply hardens and changes to a cbestnut-red. Tlie next change is a liidden one, only to be I'evealed by tlie most cureful dissection and examination by removal of the outer skin, when a pure white maggot is found, having on the third segment a small forked ajiparatus known as the breast boiie or anchor process, which, one entomologist asserted, *' assisted the larva in obtaining its food," overlookmg the fact that the anchor process did not develop until the feeding stage had been passed, and between it and the stalk the hard skin of the puparium intervened. Arranging and fastening down a number of puparia in rows of ten, with their heads down and in one direction (as in their normal position), I dissected several in the first row, finding all the internal larva in the same position, viz. heads down and mouths toward the stalk. The next week T dissected part of the second row, with the same result. Some weeks later I found one of the internal larva with its head up and its back to the stalk ! Plow had it managed to reverse its position? Continuing my examination of the larvae, I found one with its head just on the turn, and closer examination showed that the forked and free tips of the anchor process were driven into the skin of the puparium, and, acting as a " scotch," prevented it from slipping down; the larva then by mnscular effort moved its back down a very short distance, pressing the reverse spines covering its back into that of the puparium ; the anchor tips were then withdrawn and moved a slight distance higher, the back again moved down, was "scotched," and so on, until by repeated action of this wonderful contrivance the larva reversed its posi- tion of head downwards and inwards to head up and outwards, with only the thin leaf-sheath between it and the open air, to penetrate which by the pupa was an easy task. In September these reversed larvfe changed to pupae, and in a few days pierced the leaf -sheath and the perfect Hessian Fly was liberated. In America the autumn wheat is sometimes utterly ruined by the myriads of flies laying their eggs on the tender blade almost before any stalk has grown, the larvae working their way right down to the grain, and often changing to the puparium stage inside the husk. Owing to the later sowing -in Great Britain,- the crops escape tlie autumn attack, though young plants of self-sown wheat are generally attacked. Such, then, is a brief life-history of the Flessian Fly, which, partly owing to our climate and times of sowing wheat, does not appear to feel comfortable in our country. I might mention that at the time of its visitation I bred a very large number of parasites (fig. 117) from the puparia gathered. I suggested the advisability of collecting large quantities of the infected straw with the view of breeding vast numbers of these natural checks and turning them down in the infested districts, as they would do their appointed duty without the red-tape regulations of those unacquainted wn'th their habits. This proposal of mine was disregarded by those in authority; so I wrote to my friend the late Professor 0. Y. Riley, United States entomologist, asking him if he would like me to send some puparia containijig the parasites. He TWO INSECTS AFFECTING WHEAT AND BAKLEY CROPS. 327 replied by return, " Send me a sliip-load if you can." I sent him three pill-boxes full, containing between three thousand and four thousand puparia. These Professor Eiley distributed to three of his observation stations, where in due time the parasites hatched out and increased, and became thoroughly acclimatized. Unfortunately, our Board of Agriculture has no such observation stations, or even officials noted for their expert knowledge of insect pests. Fig. 117. — Parasite of the Hessian Fly piercing the leaf-sheath (under which is a grub) for the purpose of laying an egg in its BODY. ( X 6 diam.) On August 18, 1908, Mr. G. E. Mainland, F.E.M.S., of Tenby, sent to me a box of wheat-stalks from a field in that neighbourhood. Between the joints underneath the leaf-sheath were from six to nine legless larvge of a bright red colour, resting in a curled-up position, each in a cavity in the stalk three-sixteenths of an inch in length, much resembling a niche in a cathedral wall, with a fungus-like growth at the top and bottom (figs. 118, 119). The larvae were actively twisting about, evidently full-grown, for in a few days they left the stalks and buried themselves in the soil. Specimens were sent (by the owner of the field) to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for the name, and information how to deal with the pest, which had attacked the wheat arid barley so that not a stalk had escaped. The advisers of the Board 328 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. informed the owner that the wheat was suffering from an attack of Hessian Fly, an assertion which I felt fully justified in flatly contra- j dieting ; and some months afterwards, when the larVcT. had buried them- ' selves and so got beyond control, the advisers informed the owner that the larvae were those of " Diplosis aurantiaca, a dangerous wheat-pest." i I sent a photograph to Dr. L. 0. Howard, the United States | entomologist, head of the Bureau of Agriculture, who informed me that nothing of the kind had been seen in iVmerica, and that it was quite new to him. I kept the larvse in the soil until June 1909, when, on examination, I found several in very much the same condition as when I last saw them. I asked Mr. Mainland to send me a good supply. Fig. 118. — A whole plant of Barley showing slits in leaf-sheath MADE BY GRUBS OF " TeNBY WhEAT PeST." ThE GRUBS, 6 TO 9, BETWEEN THE KNOTS ARE CONCEALED BETWEEN THE STALK AND THE SHEATH. (Half natural size.) which he did on June 12. Some of these I observed change to pupa^ which very much resembled the larvae in colour. Previous to pupating, the larvae, by twisting and twirling about, managed to work themselves into the soil, where they scooped out a small oval chamber in which to pupate. Some of these I accidentally ruptured digging up, but in others I observed the larval skin cast and the pupa produced. At first the legs were difficult to discern, as they scarcely projected beyond the body. In the course of a week the eyes and wings began to darken, and the legs became more distinct; the abdomen, too, and the dark dorsal marks stood out distinctly, until, just a month after pupating, I bred six female flies. These, together with my original photographs of the mjured stalks, I placed in the hands of Mr. 0. 0. L. Waterhouse, I.S.O., who very kindly handed them over to Mr. E. E. TWO INSECTS AFFECTING WHEAT AND BAELEY CROPS. 329 Austin, the dipterist at the Natural History Museum, who searched out the true name, viz. Clinodiplosis equestris of Wagner, whose figure of the injured stalk agreed in every point with my photograph. I(i appears that Wagner obtained his first specimens in 1865 from Fulga, Cassel, Germany, but it has not been much heard of since that date. Being anxious to learn as much as possible of this extraordinary pest, I determined to visit the infected district at Tenby. On June 12 Mr. and Miss Mainland visited the field and observed a vast number of midge-like flies swarming in the ridge (the field having been plouglied and potatos planted). Fig. 119. — Ear and part of Barley Stalk injured by the grubs (in situ) of the "Tenby Wheat Pest," Clinodiplosis equestris, Wagner. (Natural size.) A high wind was blowing, making the capture of specimens a very difficult matter; however, a male and two females were caught and sent on to me. I recognized the similarity of colour on the abdomen of the female, but could not say positively that these flies had emerged from the red pupse, though I thought they had. Nothing more was seen of this great multitude of flies. On July 9 I went down to Tenby, where by the kindness and with the guidance of Mr. Mainland, as well as the courtesy of the occupier of the field, I obtained a good supply of the larvae by simply using my fingers to dig them up, cheir bright red colour making them very conspicuous objects in the sunshine. I also swept up a number of the females from out of the rank grass and herbage growing around the field and hedges. 330 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTTCTILTTTRAL SOCIETY. I placed the lai'Vfe in a tin box containing soil taken from the field. This box I placed out in my garden at Hollow ay, covered in with cheese- cloth, but otherwise exposed to all sorts of weather, sometimes, especially during the present month of July, being flooded by torrential rains. From Lime to time since July 1909 I have examined the soil, each time finding the larvae alive; in winter they went down deeper. It is a fact much to be regretted that here in Great Britain we have no Bureau of Agriculture such as that of the United States of America, where insect pests of all kinds are studied in their natural haunts by the various members of the staff, all of whom are expert field naturalists. Any farmer who finds a crop pest which is unknown to him can send it up to the Bureau, feeling certain that he will receive information at once; and, should the pest be a new one, one (or more) of the experts is sent down to work out its life-history. Had such measures been possible in the instance of the Tenby wheat pest the Board of Agri- culture would have seen that the wheat and barley were at once burned, and so prevented the myriads of flies which emerged in June and after from coming to life. This neglect may result in a vast army of devastating insects which may yet make their presence felt, for, unlike the Hessian Fly, the Tenby wheat pest has now successfully passed through a very trying English winter. The work of studying these insect pests ought not to be left to those whose time is otherwise occupied, and who do it from an earnest desire to obtain knowledge which may be of interest and scientific value to their fellow-workers. HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ROCK GARDEN. 331 HOW TO BUILD A SMALL BOOK GAEDEN. By A. Glutton Beock, F.E.H.S. [Read August 2, 1910.] Rock gardens in this country are often designed, built, and planted by those who have no further concern with them. That, I suppose, is the reason why. they are often faulty in all respects. The designer is not the gardener, and so does not correct his faults from experience. He is in the same case as an architect who should be always building houses and never living in them. I cannot claim to have a large experience in making rock gardens, but I have designed, built, and planted my own for myself, and experience has shown me where I was wrong very quickly and rather painfully. For my errors have either caused some of my plants to ail or die, or else they have made part of my rock garden look ugly. The main object of this paper is to prevent others from falling into the same errors. I cannot give any general plan for a rock garden, because the nature of the plan must depend upon the size of the rock garden and the cliaracter of its site. Most of us have to make the best of exisiing conditions. I have had to make the best of a northerly slope, and I envy those who can make the best of a southerly one. The soil of my slope is dry and sandy, therefore it suffers more from drought than from lack of drainage. I could obtain southerly aspects only by digging a valley across my slope, and, even so, more of my rock garden looks north than south. But in my first plan I made one elementary mistake. I allowed one end of my valley to be open to the north-east, so that the north-east winds of March swept up it and killed off many southern plants that had just managed to keep alive through the winter. Therefore I will begin with this obvious piece of advice : Construct your rock garden so that the southerly part of it is . thoroughly sheltered from the north and north-east, and, if possible, let the shelter be provided by the rock garden itself, not by hedges or trees. A rock garden should be in a situation as open as possible, so that it may have plenty of sun and fresh air. Trees and hedges and tall shrubs load the winter air with moisture, and they aj'e out of scale with the plants and rock-work of a rock garden. There are plenty of plants, both easy and beautiful, that will thrive on a northerly slope and take no harm from bitter winds. Such a slope is the best possible protection for the more delicate plants grown on the other side of it. As to the general shape of a rock garden, that must depend, of 1 course, upon the site. If it is a valley, its main direction had better : be N.E. and S.W., so that its slopes face S.E. and N.W. But, what- ever the main direction may be, it is easy by windings and jutting 333 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. promontories to construct it with a great variety of aspects ; and in any case there should be a sharp turn at the northerly exit, so that the exit may not let in the north winds. The chief advantage of a valley is that it can be made to afford so many aspects, and if it winds and has slopes of varying steepness it escapes the monotony which is the chief fault of the valley form. A valley, of course, must be made by two ranges, and where there is not unlimited space the inner slopes of these ranges should be, in the main, gradual, and the outer more steep. Thus there will be more room in the protected part of the rock garden than in the unprotected. But here and there should be steep jutting promontories of bold rock- work on the inner slopes, wdth subsidiary valleys running up between them, and one of these subsidiary valleys would be a good place, I imagine, to try one of Mr. Farrer's moraines, in which he grows the more difficult alpines with such success. It is a common fault of rock gardens, I think, that their slopes are too steep. It is true that a steep slope gives sharp drainage, but that, where necessary, may be provided much better by broken rocks under the soil. A valley with steep inner slopes is apt to suffer from lack of air, and the steeper the slopes the more rocks there must be and the less room for plants. The best plan, I think, is to make the outer slopes steep and to cover them with easier plants, reserving tbe inner slopes for the more difficult. The valley form of rock garden cannot be sharply distinguished from the hollow form, for a valley is only an elongated hollow. Which you ^vill have depends mainly upon the shape of your ground. If you have a square, flat piece of ground, form a hollow wdth slopes partly below the surface of the ground and partly above it. How far down you will dig must depend upon the nature of your natural drainage, unless you provide elaborate artificial drainage. I have myself no experience of badly drained sites. My own is only too well drained. Much of what I have said about the valley applies to the hollow. Its inner slopes should be gradual and its outer more steep. Or, if you are cramped for space, make the southerly slopes gradual and the northerly more steep. In any case vary the contour with promontories of bold rock-work, and let there be little valleys leading out of the hollow between lengthened mounds, so that the rock garden does not begin and end too suddenly. The problem of paths is more difficult in a hollow than in a valley. The main path necessarily runs along the bottom of a valley. In a hollow it can be placed where you choose. If it runs straight across, it looks very artificial. It will be most useful and least ugly if it is made as unobtrusive as possible, winding about here between bold rocks and there between flat spaces, and being paved with rough flat rocks which will both mark its course and seem to give a reason for its existence. But this pavement must not, of course, suggest flagstones. The rocks should not be fitted too close or regularly together. Low plants, such as the Stonecrops, or Cainpanula caespitosa or Thymus Serpyllum, should break in between them here and there, but not so frequently or thickly as to make the pavement HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ROCE: GARDEN. 333 like stepping-stones. The path should lead out at either end through elongated mounds, sinking gradually down to the level. There may, of course, be rock gardens of other shapes, as, for instance, a flat rock garden varied with mounds or knolls here and there. In this case it is difficult to make the mounds look as if they had any reason for their existence, and it is wisest, perhaps, to make the rock garden frankly artificial. A mound of irregularly built rock- work rising up out of an ordinary herbaceous garden is apt to look incongruous, but a charming effect may be produced by a raised oblong piece of ground enclosed in low walls, say, about 3 feet high, with a nearly fiat rocky space on the lop, if it IS rightly placed. If you must have a rock garden close to a house, this is the kind to have. The enclosing walls make it harmonize with the regular masonry of the house, and the rocks on the slightly rounded top need not be obtrusive, and will enable you to grow many beautiful rock plants. I have seen such a little rock garden running parallel with the side of the house, with a path between them that looked both formal and natural, for there complete informality would have been incongruous. I can imagine, though I have never seen, a combination of rock garden and Dutch garden that would be very beautiful, formal in its main plan, in its walls, -and in the shape of the beds, but those beds all filled with rock plants thriving among unob- trusive rock- work and looking far better than in a mere chaos of stones. One might not grow the most difficult plants, perhaps, in such a rock garden, but, after all, a rock garden is most successful when it is beautiful and agrees well with its surroundings. I have seen many ambitious rock gardens which failed in both respects. I come now to the rock- work itself. If that is not rightly built, design and plants are alike wasted. For the building of rock- work I can only lay down some general principles, all of which the experienced gardener will no doubt violate in particular cases. But the beginner, if he will follow them, will avoid some common and fatal errors. Some of them are, or ought to be, obvious ; but I mention them because I have often seen them violated in ambitious rock gardens with disastrous results. In the first place, the main rocks, especially if the rock garden is of any size, should be as large as possible. I always wish mine were larger, but they have to be no bigger than I can safely handle by myself or with the help of one gardener. With these large rocks the main lines of the rock garden should be laid out. Smaller rocks can be fitted in afterwards where necessary. Needless to say, the rocks should vary in shape and none should look too geometrical. Thin flat rocks of the shape of paving-stones are almost useless, except as paving-stones. I myself use Bargate sandstone that sometimes splits into awkward spiky shapes, but otherwise is good enough for most purposes. The most useful rocks are those which can be sunk some way into the soil and •yet will show a good bold surface above it. Most people, of course, will prefer to get their rocks from the nearest quarry that provides decent ones, whatever the kind of rock may be. VOL. XXXVI. Z 334 JOURNAL OF THE EOYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. If rock-work is to be effective it must be massed, not evenly dis- tributed over the whole rock garden; and this can be easily done in a rock garden of varying slopes, for the steeper the slope the closer and larger the rocks should be. Pile your rocks up boldly on your steep, jutting promontories, but on the gradual slopes place a rock here and there with broad spaces between. Above all things, never place a rock without considering what kind of plant is to be grown under it. The rocks are there, first of all, to help the plants to thrive, and not as architecture on their own account. I need scarcely say that all rocks should be placed so that the roots of plants can run under them ; there- fore it is useless to drive them down vertically into the soil; also that they should not overhang the plants so as to make a drip, though there are a few plants that thrive best where an overhanging rock protects them from rain without causing a drip into them. The rocks should be built so that they provide large and small, level, hollowed, and slanting pockets. The proportion of these must depend upon the kinds of plants grown and the climate and natural drainage. A plant like Edraianthus Pu'inilio needs to be wedged into a pocket as small as possible. A plant like Androsace lanuginosa needs a fairly large pocket, so that it may be increased by layers. \ There are many small plants like Campayiula excisa, tho^t like a long narrow pocket, as they run about from place to place, dying out in one spot and throwing up new growth in another. On the other hand, a large-growing plant like Lithospermuin pro- stratu7n can be placed in a small pocket if there is plenty of room below for its roots, as it makes all its growth above ground, and that is the better for resting on rock rather than on the earth. But all this only means that the gardener should know the habits of growth of all his plants and provide for them accordingly. In wet climates, or where the natural drainage is not sharp, most of the pockets for the more difficult alpines should be sloping. In my own dry garden sloping pockets are fatal to plants like Dianthiis alpinus or Androsace carnea that are impatient of drought. They prefer a flat or even hollowed pocket that is very well drained below. Even the easy Androsace lactea dies off in hot weather with me unless planted in a flat place. Speaking generally, those plants need flat pockets, at least in a dry, hot garden, w^hicli do not root very deeply, and so depend upon surface moisture. This cannot be given them in a sloping pocket, as it all runs away. . So for them pockets should be made, which will hold the rain, but drained so that it will run down quickly to their roots and past them. As to the artistic arrangement of rocks, the builder must trust his own eye. He can see when the rocks look chaotic or unnatural, as, if he has any experience of rock plants, he can see when they are not fitted for plant life. And he must persevere until they satisfy him. 1 do not think that general directions are of nuicli use in this matter; so much depends upon the lie of the ground, the character of the rocks, and the plants to be grown. But it is possible to arrange rocks so that they shall seem to be in strata, whether they are continuous or crop out of the grouud here and there; and this can best be done with long HOW TO BUILD A SMALL EOCK GAEDEN. 885 rocks or with rocks so placed in the ground that they look long. Strata on a slope look most natural when they do not run horizontally, but have themselves a slight slope up and down. The direction of strata on one side of a valley should always be the same. Nothing looks worse or more unnatural than a line of rocks sloping up in one direction, foilow^ed by another line sloping down in the same direction. Yet the strata should not be too long or too regular, and there is no difficulty in breaking them with bold masses of rock if the contour of the rock garden is sufficiently varied. In the hollow circular form of rock garden it is not so easy nor so necessary to arrange rocks in strata unless the garden is very large. There the best effects are produced by contrasts of bold steep rock-work with more level spaces where the rocks are fewer. Where this is done each mass of bold rock- work should seem to be a centre or nucleus of a system of rocks, and the rocks in the intervening spaces should grow Jess frequent the further away they are from these centres. A circular rock garden is apt to look very chaotic where there are no contrasts of this kind, and where the rocks are evenly distributed without any system. Where the rock garden consists only of small mounds, it is impossible to do much in the way of systematic arrangement of the rocks. But if the gardener arranges them so that plants will thrive among them they will not look absurd. The worst absurdities are always produced by attempts to make a rock architecture without regard to the welfare of the plant, just as the worst absurdities of architecture itself are produced in buildings that are designed without regard to their uses. You will often see rocks in nature that are not favourable to plant hfe; but a rock garden is art, not nature, and the aim of all gardening ; art is to make plants look beautiful. 1 I come now to the arrangement of plants, and I can only speak ; of their artistic arrangement. They vary so much in their needs that ; it is impossible to give any general suggestions for their horticultural I arrangement. The chief fault, I think, in most good rock gardens is 1 tha,t there are too many flowers in the flowering time. Many people I think there cannot be too many flowers in any kind of garden. But j if we try to analyse the peculiar beauty of wild flowers, and especially I of mountain flowers, which it is so difficult to produce in our gardens, i we shall find, I think, that it comes from the contrast between the I flowers themselves and the flowerless spaces about them, and also from the contrasts produced by the different habits of the plants. In a rock garden, therefore, we should aim at varying our masses of blossom with masses of flowerless growth and at broad contrasts of habit. Upon contrasts of this kind a great part of its beauty will depend. But there is another matter to be considered, namely, scale, and that is equally 1 important. The beauty of the smaller alpines is greatly marred when they are near some coarser- growing lowland plant, and the lowland ! plant suffers equally. In particular the smaller alpine shrubs seem to lose all their character and propriety if vigorous herbaceous plants are anywhere near them. Many people grow certain large plants reck- z 2 336 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. lessly in their rock gardens merely because tliey are found in the Alps. ,i This is another instance of the unintelligent imitation of nature. The j white Veratriim or the Globe flower often look well enough on the slopes i of a great mountain, but near the smaller alpine plants in a rock garden i they look as incongruous as Madonna lilies or German irises. Docks and nettles grow astonishingly high among the Alps, but no one, I t suppose, would therefore put them in a rock garden. It is useless ; to waste bold rock-work upon large lowland plants. The plants will dwarf any rocks possible in our gardens. If they are grown in the rock garden at all they should be upon its outskirts ; and so should large shrubs like Cistus cyprius or Cistus laurifolius, or the larger ! brooms or Barberries. In my opinion the smaller plants should be grown among the larger and more massed rocks, as we find them in i the Alps. Here, too, should be the smaller alpine shrubs. Where rocks are massed boldly little plants do not look meagre, and the rocks ! are a foil to their delicate beauty. If some easy-growing plants are to ^ be grown among the smaller alpines, so that vegetation may not seem too sparse, the best and safest are the smallest houseleeks, such as | Sempervivum arachnoid eum and S. Laggeri. These, though they in- crease fairly fast, will not smother plants near them; and they do not seem out of scale with the smallest alpine. The alpine toadflax is a dangerous plant for the purpose, as it grows at a great pace in wet summers and will cover a small neighbour very quickly. If once we make up our minds to observe scale in our planting we shall find the problems much simplified. Scale does not depend so much upon the size of a rock plant as upon its whole character and the size of its leaves. Thus Lithospermum prostratum and Hypericum reptans are not out of scale with small alpines, however large they may grow. But Campanula carpatica is out of scale because it has large leaves and the habit of a herbaceous plant. It again is a plant for the outskirts of a rock garden, and so are the larger pinks, because their : flowers are borne on long stalks and their whole scale is large. As in building rock-work the main lines should be laid dowm first with large rocks, so in planting the main effect should be secured first with drifts and masses of the more easily grown plants, combined with appropriate shrubs. Such drifts should follow the lines of the rock- work, and where one drift passes into another the plants may be mixed so that the change may not look too abrupt. It is worth noting that prostrate and low-growing plants look much better in long drifts than plants which have upright stalks. A line of these always looks artificial on rock-work. Like Lombardy poplars in a landsca}^, they should be planted singly so as to make a sharp contrast with the masses of pros- trate plants. Nothing, for instance, could look more ineffective than a long unbroken line of Saxifraga pyramidalis in flower; nothing better than occasional heads of this varying a drift of Lithospermum pro- stratum. If it is massed at all it should be massed not in a drift but in a compact patch behind some drifts of a prostrate plant, so that its stalks will bend ovfer and make a cloud of blossom. And here I may remark HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ROCK GARDEN. 337 that this Saxifrage, at least in dry, sunny gardens, is not a plant for narrow, sloping cracks between rocks, but thrives best in a large fiat pocket with rich soil, where its offsets have room to grow large. Again, an upright plant like Polemonium mellitum looks its best rising here and there on the north side of the rock garden among quite prostrate plants such as Saxifraga apicv.lata. Where there are bold drifts it is much easier to plan good contrasts or harmonies of colour, than where the plants are merely dotted about ; and strong contrasts of colour should be varied by quiet harmonies, or more contrasts of growth or leafage. Thus I found in my own rock garden that an accidental contrast of Lithospermum prostratum with the pink Phlox ' Vivid ' looked well enough because it was mitigated by a mixture of Tanacetum argenteum with its grey leafage. In fact it is possible to combine flowers of almost any colour with good effect if only they are well mixed with quiet-coloured foliage or with white flowers. So where there are bold contrasts of colour it is well to soften them with an intermixture of white-flowered plants, such as the dwarf iVchilleas, and with grey-leaved plants such as the excellent Tanacetum I have just mentioned, or the prostrate Artemisias, or the Aizoon Saxi- frages, or Antennaria, or the woolly thyme. There is particular need of these low-growing, grey-leaved plants on flat parts of the rock garden, which are so apt to look like mere herbaceous borders if not carefully planted. In such flat spaces scale is more important than anywhere else, and any large lowland plant will destroy the whole effect. Often in a rock garden one sees such a flat space, with a few rocks placed at random, covered with plants such as Iceland poppies or Canadian Phlox, or the larger pinks, a space which lacks. both the neatness of a border and the character of a rock garden, and which looks hopelessly ragged and spent by July. Although one may grow no choice plants in such places yet one can exercise much care and skill in planting them, so that they are in character with the rest of the rock garden and never look overgrown or autumnal. In them, as elsewhere, such rocks as there are should be massed, and as large as possible, with broad rock- less spaces in between that may be covered with neat prostrate plants of easy culture. There mix drifts of Viola gracilis with the woolly thyme, keeping the thyme well in bounds with frontiers of rock. That is the place also for large patches of the Gentianella, of Campanula caespitosa mixed with Sedum album, Dry as octopetala mixed with Glohularia cordifolia, and variety of height should be obtained, not by larger lowland plants, but by shrubs such as the smaller Veronicas, Berheris dulcis nana, Iberis ' little gem, ' Ibens correaefolia, and the dwarf Philadelphus, with here and there a larger mass of Santolina mcana or Helianthemum formosum . But the shrubs should not be in too great variety, or the whole effect will be chaotic ; and they must be very carefully placed, and, if necessary, kept well within bounds by tilipping. Those flat spaces are also the places for bulbs, if bulbs are grown in the rock garden. The smaller daffodils and tuhps and the choicer irises may be planted in drifts under a carpet of Seduni dasij- 338 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. j phylliim ; stronger stoiiecrops such as Seduvi albuiii are apt to smother ^ them. They look their best iiesthng in patches close to small shrubs. | There is nothing so important for the general effect of the rock | garden as the right choice and placing of shnibs. In my opinion too large shrubs are often used and misused. It seems to me that the larger j Oistuses, such as Cistus cyprius or G. laurifolius and the larger brooms, i are out of scale, except where used as a background in very large rock li gardens. "What is needed is shrubs which, whether prostrate or not, are com- pact in habit and, at least, look as if they were mountain plants. Only ' the more prostrate shrubs, I think, should be planted on the top of a ; mound ; upright shrubs look like .monuments in such places ; and we must remember that in the mountains the heights are wind-swept, and so covered only by the most prostrate plants. The beautiful prostrate Savin never looks better than when it grows high up in a flat j place surrounded with some grey stonecrop or with patches of Sern- i pervivum ; and it is well to repeat the effect in another flat place a little lower down and a few yards to one side of it. On the other hand, rounded or upright shrubs look their best half-way down a slope with a , background of bold rock-work; and, as I have said, they should have no large plants near them to put them out of scale. In fact, the more I see of rock gardens the more I am convinced of the importance of filling them only with plants that are not only rock plants but look like rock plants. We hear a great deal about the need for variety in rock gardens, but there is, I think, more often too much variety than too much monotony in them, and it is easy to get enough variety in colour, leafage, and habit of growth with a selection of plants that are all [ thoroughly in scale. The height can be varied, not only with the [ smaller, upright, and rounded shrubs, but also with rock plants that throw up erect flowering stalks, such as many Saxifrages, the Semper- ; vivums, many rock pinks, the smaller Achilleas, AetJiionema grandi- j florum, Lithospermum graniinifolium, Papaver alpmum, Aster alpiniis, ' or Campanula harbata. And the smaller the rock garden the more carefully scale should be observed. In very large rock gardens, with very bold rock-work, the larger mountain plants may be grown, but even then they should be kept well apart from the smaller alpines, and particularly from Alpine shrubs. I have seen OstroivsMa luatfuifica \ recommended as a rock plant, chiefly, I suppose, because it is con- sidered difficult to grow, and Incarvillea Delavayi used to be often planted in rock gardens, while it was still a novelty. Both these plants seem i to me quite unsuitable, .unless we are to regard a rock garden only as a nursery for rare or new or difficult plants. If we use it as a means of achieving a kind of beauty not otherwise obtainable, w^e should be careful to eliminate any plants w^hich, however beautiful in them- selves, are not in character with that peculiar kind of beauty. SOME LTTTLE-KNOWN CiRAPES. 339 SOME LITTLE-KNOWN GEAPES. By A. G. Smith, Assistant-Superintendent E.H.S. Garden, Wisley. [Read August 16, 1910.] The earliest references we have of grapes being grown in England is in the year 1285. At this remote period grape-growing was apparently an important industry, for we learn that vineyards were extensively planted near Winchester, and it is generally supposed that this town took its name from the fact that it was the centre of the wine-making industry. Of the same period it is reported that vines were grown out of doors as far north as the county of Derby, the village of Winger- worth taking its name from vineyards flourishing in those parts. There is also a well-founded tradition that the Archbishop of Canterbury had nn extensive vineyard attached to his palace at Charing in Kent. It thus seems undoubted that wine grapes were at one time extensively cultivated in this country. That the cultivation of the vine outside was eventually discontinued here may be due to two reasons : first, that in all probability better flavoured wines could be brought from France, and, secondly, that agriculture was rapidly advancing at that time, and, being more pro- fitable, it eventually ousted the grape. One of the finest vineyards to produce good wine was that at Pains Hill, Cobham, not far distant from the Eoyal Horticultural Society's present Garden at Wisley, where we are told that wine quite as good as any produced on the Oon- tiuent was made. No great progress seems to have been made with the cultivation of the grape as a dessert fruit until about the year 1718, when the Duke of Eutland had his garden walls fitted with flues, and by so doing was able to obtain ripe grapes in July by carefully matting them up a,t night. This seems to have been the commencement of grape-growing for dessert purposes. There are no reliable records concerning the varieties he grew, but we have proof that in 1724 ' Muscat of Alex- andria ' and * Black Hamburgh ' were being grown, although they were not considered to be hardy, and consequently were not much planted. Somewhere about that period, however, vineries were built, and the cultivation of good grapes was seriously taken up, and new varieties were constantly being raised and tried. When we see the fine bunches of the varieties already mentioned which are annually exhibited at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh, London, and other large shows, it must be admitted that these two varieties more than hold their own ; in fact, special classes are always provided for them. The large vine at Hampton Court, from which most excellent fruit was exhibited only hist year, was planted as long ago as the year 1769, a fact that proves not only the longevity of the vine, but shows how this fine grape has 340 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. stood the test of time. Grape-growing has during the last fifty years , become quite an art, towards the perfection of which the Eoyal Horti- j cultural Society has done very much. A special feature of vine cultiva- tion has always been made in the vineries both at Chiswick and at Wisley. Numberless varieties have been tried and many discarded, and now we have a standard collection planted at Wisley numbering over forty varieties, and it is of some of these I propose to speak, as they very properly come within the designation of " some little-known grapes." I know of no kind of glass house which affords more pleasure in summer to its owner than a well-stocked vinery, and for the amateur wdio has room for only one vine there is no grape more suitable than 'Black Hamburgh.' It has a strong constitution, grows vigorously, j is of good flavour, and is also a free setter. Should, however, a Muscat- flavoured grape be desired, T would strongly recommend ' Muscat of Hungary. ' This is a delicious grape with a pronounced Muscat flavour. The bunches are not large, but when well grown the berries attain a nice size, are of a pale greenish-yellow colour, and will keep till well i after Christmas, retaining their full Muscat flavour. It sets quite as j freely as ' Black Hamburgh ' and is well worth a place in every collec- tion. It is frequently called the * Small-berried Muscat of Alexandria.' * Chasselas Napoleon.' — This is a grape with many synonyms. Its origin is not known. It is a variety which has been a long time in cultivation, but it is an error to classify it amongst the Chasselas section. How it got there in the first place is a mystery. Although i it is not cultivated in quantity anywhere, isolated specimens are not rare. In warm districts the fruit is of a soft golden colour, : whilst further north it keeps its transparent white tint, which justifies one of its synonyms, the Large White Pearl {Grosse perle, blanche). As a dessert grape it must be classed amongst the most beauti- ful and the most decorative, and, started at the same time as ' Black Hamburgh ' or ' Foster's Seedling,' it will be ripe quite a fortnight i before them. * Chasselas Napoleon ' does best if worked on a Muscat, , and has been exhibited in splendid condition on many occasions by Mr. Jordan, formerly of Impney Gardens, Droitwich. It is desirable to practise artificial pollination. This grape is largely grown under glass i around Paris, and sells well. One grower, from a vine twelve years old, gathered in 1900, 125 bunches, weighing on an average over 2^ lb. , and in 1909 he gathered 170 bunches, averaging 2 lb. 3 oz. At W^isley it is a strong grower, making handsome bunches, and will frequently set three clusters on one lateral, proving how very prolific a variety it is. Intend- ing planters will never regret including this fine grape in their collec- tion. It received a First-class Certificate from the Royal Horticultural Society on October 27, 1891. ' Muscat Champion.' — This is without doubt one of the most hand- some and finest flavoured grapes grown. It was raised by Mr. Melville, gardener to the Earl of Rosebery, and is a cross between ' Canon Hall Muscat ' and 'Mill Hill Hamburgh,' being sent out about the year 1858 by Messrs. Veitch, of Chelsea. It is sometimes rather SOME LITTLE-KNOWN GRAPES. 341 disappointing when in the young state, being slow to start, but the second year, as a rule, it makes gross wood. It is advisable to sliade slightly, as the wood frequently scalds and so does not ripen well, but if the shading is attended to at the right time, no difficulty will be experienced in finishing the wood properly. It is a midseason grape, of a. foxy red colour, with large berries, approaching those of ' Gros Oolmar ' in size. Many are inclined to think from its appearance that it is not ripe, but, in spite of this, no finer flavoured grape can be grown, and where high quality is desired it should always be included. The skin is thin, and, being a larged-berried variety, great care should be taken when thinning to leave abundant room for swelling. ' Prince of Wales.' — Among the new grapes this one is sure to hold a leading position, because of its fine size and appearance. It origi- nated as a sport from ' Mrs. Pince ' in the gardens of Captain Stirling- Maxwell, of Keir, whose gardener (Mr. Thomas Lunt) is a well-known a,nd skilful grape-grower in the North, and, like many other really good things, it was sent out by Messrs. Veitch, of Chelsea. It inherits from its parent some of the fine Muscat flavour which is so pronounced in that variety, but has much larger bunches and berries of a roundish oval shape and blue-black colour. It is a good keeper, and although with age it loses a little of its deep colour, it retains its fine flavour until the berries shrivel. It received an Award of Merit from the Eoyal Horticultural Society on September 25, 1900, and was granted a First-class Certificate in 1908, when shown in the Wisley collection at Vincent Square. It has proved a strong grower and free setter, but it is, like ' Mrs. Pince,' a little averse from too much bright sunshine, and colours and finishes better if slightly shaded during the brighter liours of the day. When pruning it is advisable to leave at least three good buds, as the better bunches are thrown on the young wood. For exhibition purposes it makes a splendid companion to ' Canon Hall Muscat.' It is well worth planting, both as a midseason and as a late variety. ' Blach Prince.' — This is one of our earliest Sweetwater grapes, and well worth including in all collections. It is one of the earliest grapes to ripen, and is extremely handsome, having long tapering bunches, frequently from 18 inches to 2 feet in length. The berries are medium sized, with a heavy bloom. It is a free grower and sets freely, and the fruit is very juicy and sweet. For exhibition purposes it is an excellent grape, as it usually finishes well, but it should be eaten immediately it is ripe, as it will shrivel if allowed to hang long. * White Nice.' — This grape should undoubtedly be in every collec- tion, as it is a late-keeping variety. It is a good grape when it IS allowed to hang, fxrm, sweet, and of good flavour. The vine is a vigorous grower and produces very large bunches. One grower IS reported to have exhibited a bunch of this variety weighing 25 lb. 15 oz. Its cultural requirements are similar to those of ' Black Ham- burgh,' but it will keep a great deal longer. It is of a pleasing colour 84*2" JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTTTRAL 800TETY. when well finished, almost like a Muscat, but the berries are a little , smaller and round. When well shouldered-up it makes a liandsome bunch. It is very strange that such a useful grape shoidd be so seldom grown. 'Lady Hoistings.' — This variety was raised by Mr. Shingler, of Melton Constable Gardens, and received a First-class Certificate on July 25, 1899. It originated, I believe, as a sport from ' Muscat ! Hamburgh,' and has all the good qualities of its parent. This excellent grape does not require such a long season to ripen as do many other varieties, and is found by niany gardeners very difficult to grow or fruit. It does best if the roots are confined and not given too nuich run, and it does not object to copious supplies of good food, being a strong grower. If a little attention is given to the pruning and after- management of this vine there should be no difficulty in getting it to make good growth and bear fine bunches. Do not prune too severely — leave at least three good buds. At Wisley it does well, always com- mencing to colour first. It will not hang long, and should be eaten at i once, otherwise the colour changes and it loses a great deal of its rich | Muscat flavour. If started with * Muscat of Alexandria ' it will be ripe quite a fortnight earlier. Unless the wood is thoroughly ripened it will be found disappointing, for herein especially is the secret oi success — not too much rooting space, and thorough maturity of the wood; and for this reason alone it is by no means advisable to give it an outside border. The berries are large, of a blue-black colour, and rich Muscat flavour, while the bunches are, as a rule, long and heavily ! shouldered. It is undoubtedly one of the finest grapes introduced of late years. j ' Appley Towers.' — This is one of 'the handsomest of the late j grapes, is of first-class quality, and makes handsome bunches, with ' large, deep black berries. It requires well thinning or it is liable to split, much in the same way as * Madresfield Court ' does, and it is j also more subject to mildew than many other varieties are ; in fact. I have seen it when grown in a mixed collection very badly disfigared by mildew when others in the same house have been free. * Corniclion Blanc' — This is the Lady's Finger Grape, so called on i account of the long curved form of berries, which are often an incli and a half in length and covered with bloom. The flesh is firm and sweet, the bunches of good size and handsome appearance. It is well worth growing if only for its decorative value. Mr. Taylor, of Byram Park Gardens, grows it well, and with him it makes large and handsome bunches of good flavour, and is very much appreciated as it hangs late and is always of good flavour. The vine is a vigorous grovrer ; the wood, when ripe, is of a pale straw colour, and it usually ripens well. It would make an excellent stock for some of the weaker growins: varieties. As good late white grapes are few, this variety is well worth planting, as the bunches are much appreciated at Christmas. ' Black Monukka.' — This grape might w^ell be termed " the Nursery Grape " for it has few or no seeds, which makes it comparatively quite SOME LITTLE-KNOWN GEAPES. 343 safe for children to eat. It is a strong grower, making very large bunches, heavily shouldered, and frequently measuring 24 inches in length. The bunches do not require a great deal of thinning, as the berries never get large. The berries are peculiarly shaped and the colour is a grizzly red, or occasionally black with a slight bloom. In pruning this variety it is advisable to leave plenty of young wood, as it will not fruit if severely pruned. The vine requires plenty of room, the bunches being borne some distance from the rod. The foliage is particularly useful for decoration, as it colours finely in the autumn. The flavour of this grape is most pleasant and refreshing. Its origin is not known, but it is supposed to have been sent to the Society from India. ' White Tokay.' — A great deal has been written both for and against this grape. When well grown and properly finished it is undoubtedly a very fine late white. The bunches are large, well shouldered, and tapering, with large berries of a greenish-white colour, firm, yet tender and juicy, and when well ripened the flavour is rich. It is a particu- larly strong grower, makes strong wood, which usually ripens well; but to have this grape at its best it requires a long season and time to finish well, or the result will be disappointing. ' White Frontignan. ' — This delicious grape was sent from Hungary and is one of the finest flavoured grapes grown. To the amateur who has one vinery this is quite a good grape to grow. I have seen a vine of this variety in a cold greenhouse within twelve miles of London carrying a hundred nice bunches of beautiful fruit with a strong and dehcious Muscat flavour, and I was informed that each season it bore splendid crops. It makes a bunch of medium size, with small berries, and the vine is a strong grower. 'Ascot Citronelle.' — This is one of the earliest of all grapes to ripen. The berries are small, of a beautiful amber colour when ripe, and have a decided Muscat flavour. It will ripen three weeks before ' Black Hamburgh ' grown in the same house, and is very useful as a pot vine, being extremely fruitful, and, although small of berry, its flavour commands a place for it where a first-class early grape is desired. ' Duchess of Buccleuch.' — This variety is certainly a little difficult to manage, but with care it is quite possible to grow it well, when it will be found to be one of the finest flavoured grapes grown, but it is seldom met with. It should be grown in the Muscat house, as a httle m.ore heat is required to finish it than with some, although I have seen fine bunches grown in mixed houses and finished perfectly. Unless a little fire heat is given during the time the berries are colouring they do not finish with the fine golden colour this variety should show, but will retain a greenish tint and are never so sweet. ' Grizzly Frontignan. ' — This is one of our very oldest English grapes, introduced by Sir William Temple in 1654. This delicious grape was at one time to be found in almost all collections, but has dropped out of late years owing undoubtedly to its size and appearance. I am 344 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. pleased to say that it is now again findnig favour, for it is a most delicious grape to eat. The berries are small, of a foxy-red colour, the bunches long and tapering, with a tendency to shank, but if grown on the extension system and young rods run up each season this trouble can be overcome to a great extent. ' The Syrian Grape.' — This grape is supposed to be the variety mentioned in the Old Testament, which the twelve spies sent to view the land of Canaan cut down and carried back between two of them on a staff. This grape is not generally grown, but it is worth a place. It is a strong grower and makes very large bunches; the berries are a greenish- white, but when well grown they will finish with quite an amber tint, while the flavour is pleasant, the berries sweet and juicy. The largest example of this variety grown in this country was that grown by Mr. Speechly, of Welbeck Gardens, when one bunch weighed over 19^ lb. This the Duke of Portland presented to the Marquis of Eockingham, of Went worth House, and it was carried a distance of twenty miles by four labourers, who carried it on a staff in turns between them, thus repeating in modem times the method in vogue in the days of Moses. • This brings my brief summary to a close. Several of the varieties mentioned are little known, not by reason either of any difficulty in cultivation or of their inferiority, but rather because of their accidental failure to command attention when they were first introduced. I l certainly feel that several have been dropped before they had been thoroughly tried, or their places have been taken by others purely on account of their appearance, and in total disregard of the fact that dessert fruits are meant to be eaten and not only to be looked at. ] The grape is a kingly fruit, it deserves royal food and lodgment, and hi return it will yield the grower a right royal feast. All the varieties mentioned are to be seen growing in the Wisley ' collection, and all grow and fruit excellently there. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF OUR GARDEN VEGETABLES. 345 THE OEIGIN AND HISTOEY OF OUE GAEDEN VEGETABLES AND THEIE DIETETIC VALUES. By Eev. Professor G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., V.M.H. II.— EOOTS AND TUBEES (cont.). Potato. The history of the Potato has often been written, but perhaps one o\ the most complete accounts was by " W. S. M." in the " Gardeners' Ohronicle " (April 17 and ff., 1886), from which the following items are partly extracted. The first to write about and figure the potato in England was Gerard in his "Herbal," 1597. He describes the "Potatoes of Virginia, Battata virginiana sine virginianorum, et Papus." He says that he received roots from Virginia, and compares them with the former or "common potatos," by which he means the sweet potato. The portrait which forms the frontispiece of the " Herbal " repre- sents Gerard holding a spray of the potato, having leaves, flowers, 8,nd fruit, in his hand, so that it was evidently at that time a remarkable plant. Indeed, he seems to have first received it only about ten years before the " Herbal "-was published. " W. S. M." gives an interesting account of the various voyages to America, and shows that Gerard was in error if he supposed the potato to have been a native of Virginia — i.e. the island of Eoanoke,* not the present State of Virginia on the mainland. Before Gerard's time the potato was known to Continental botanists. Clusius in 1588 had received two tubers at Vienna, sent from Belgium. Earlier still, by at least one year, it had been received at Breslau, and was growing in the garden of Dr. Scholtz. Bauhin, in 1596, alludes to an " iconem suis coloribus delineatum " of the date 1590. As to the origin of the name Papus, Gerard says: " It groweth naturally in America, as reporteth C. Clusius." If we have no record of its actual first discovery, we at least have records going as far back as sixty years earlier than the date of Gerard's writing, and these records take our attention to South America. Pedro Ciaza de Leon, in a work published at Seville in 1553, speaking of the fields and crops of the villages of the Collao district of Peru, says: " Their principal food is papas, which are like earth-nuts." Tracing the use of this word in the writings of Bauhin (1596 and 1620) and of Clusius (1601), it cannot be doubted, though there is no Spanish authority, that the potato is really meant, its name being an Anghcized form of Battata. * Bauhin writes : " They were first brought from the Island Virginia into England and thence to France and' elsewhere." 346 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAFi HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. For special details as to verification of names, &c., the reader is referred to the articles themselves. Solanum tuberosum is the name Linnaeus fixed for the cultivated potato, but much discussion has taken place as to the correct botanical species. One called Solanum Maglia (figured in the " Hort. Trans.," vol. V. PL 11, p. 240) and described as »S'. tuberosum- (wild potato), is the same as that found by Darwin in the Chonos Archipelago. Mr. Fig. 120. — Stem and Foliage of the Potato Plant, after Clusius. [Gard. Ch i on.) Baker, however, does not regard this as the real origin of the potato, which is a native of Chile and Peru. With regard to the nutritive value of potatos, they are very deficient in nitrogenous ingredients or flesh-formers, and can therefore be used only as a farinaceous addition to meat. There is 75 per cent, of ^^■ater, the rest being mainly starch (18 per cent.), the albuminoids only amounting to 1*2 per cent. The nutritive ratio is 1 : 17, and the nutrient value 22. Sir A. H. Church adds that, according to Frankland, 1 lb. of potatos w^ll supply force in doing external work to the amount of raising 12-1 tons one foot. OEIGIN AND HISTOKY OF OUR GARDEN VEGETABLES. 347 Eadish. The Eadish was known to the Greeks as Raphanos, and to the Eonians as Baplianus and Radicola, " httle root." The Kerb has been cultivated from time immemoriah Perhaps tlie earhest allusion occurs in Herodotus account of the building of the great pyramid of Egypt. Fig. 121. — Boots and Tubers of the Potato Plant, after Clusius. {Gard. Chron.) He says : "On the pyramid is shown an inscription in Egyptian 3haracters stating how much w^as expended in radishes, onions, and prlic for the workmen, which amounted to one thousand six hundred lalents of silvier." PHny speaks of several varieties, but one, the " wild," clearly refers 0 the horseradish. " The Syrian is pretty nearly the mildest and the * Herodotus was born 484 B.C. 348 JOQRNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. most tender of all, and is well able to bear the winter." He describes ! the radish as " requiring a loose, humid soil. . . . Some authors have mentioned a plan of making a hole with a dibble, and covering it at the I bottom with a layer of chaff six fingers in depth ; upon this layer the seed is put, and then covered over with manure and earth ; the result of which is that radishes are obtained full as large as the hole is made." From this one gathers that the radish in Italy grew to a much larger | size than is usual in England. Those for sale at Gibraltar and Cairo to-day are about eight inches in length and one and a half in diameter, the leaves being more than a foot in length. He adds that they were often watered with brine or nitre in Egypt. This would tend to enlarge the roots, and, according to Pliny, makes them remarkable for mildness by subduing the natural pungency. He remarks, with regard to the > Greeks : ' * Such is the frivolity of the Greeks that in the Temple of i Apollo at Delphi, it is said, the radish is so greatly preferred to all other articles of diet as to be represented there in gold, the beet in silver, and the rape in lead." He concludes with the quaint idea of antipathies among plants in his day: "There is a great antipathy between the radish and the vine, which last will shrink from the radish } if sown in its vicinity." We have seen that Gerard refers to the horse- radish in this connection. In the Middle Ages the radish was known as Raphanum vel radix or rcedic, in the tenth century the Anglo-Saxon name being Wyrt-truma, signifying " root-holder " or " root-support." In the sixteenth century , we have many illustrated books on plants ; thus Dodoens (1559) figures Raphanus sativus, the root being swollen at the top only, with a small tapering end below ; the pods are not constricted, but pointed and ovate. Turner in his " Herbal " (1568) reproduces Dodoens' figure, and adds two more; the one is an elongated conical-shaped form, the other the turnip-rooted, with a very short continuation of the tap-root. He says: " This kind is more common about Strasburgh and is seldome seen in England." ! In Matthiolus' commentary upon Dioscorides (1574) we have a decided improvement, the long form as well as the round closely resembling our present roots. He gives two figures and represents the pods as having one constriction only, in the middle, more decidedly in those of the turnip form. The pods of the long-rooted are repre- sented as having six seeds (in one laid open); the pods on the plant are barely constricted at all. Lobel, in his "History of Plants," has two figures of elongated roots, one being more swollen at the sunnnit, but not a true turnip- formed root. The pods on both have a decided, single constriction. Gerard (1597) illustrates four varieties. The Raphanus sativus, or "garden radish," is not elongated, but a short sub-truncated oblong" form; Radicula saliva 'tfiinor, " small garden radish," is like a very small one of to-day; Raphanus orhiculatus, or "round radish," is a large one, nearty two inches in diameter; while the last is called R. pyriformis, " the peare fashion radish." ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF OUR GARDEN VEGETABLES. 349 Judging, therefore, from the figures given, we do not seem to have improved or " ennobled " the radish since the sixteenth century. The question now arises. What wild species was the origin of the cultivated forms? Let us continue the research through later writers, and it will appear that the radish was not derived from China, as some writers have asserted, but from South Europe. Parkinson in his " Theatre of Plants " (1640) figures a carrot-like and a turnip-rooted form. Both have short-pointed pods with a slight constriction. The one is called " R. vulgaris, ordinary garden Eeddish " (a misnomer from the colour), and the other is " i?. niger, rotundiore radice, the rounder-rooted blacke Eeddish." The wild radish he figures under " Rapistrum album articulatum, white wilde Oharlocke," with long articulated siliquas. This appears, therefore, to be Raphanus Raphanistrum, L. Eighteenth Century. — In Tournefort's " Compleat Herbal " (1730, vol. n., p. 466) the pod of the garden radish is well represented as sHghtly constricted, striated, and sharp -pointed ; the flowers are purple. Tournefort describes R. major, orbicularis vel rotundus, with white or purple flowers; R. niger, with smaller leaves and deeper jagged (serrated?). " Parkinson sowed the seed of this species, which produced plants, some of which had black roots ; but the greatest part were covered with a white skin." Lastly, R. minor, oblongus, with oblong root. In his ''British Herbal" (1756) Dr. John Hill first describes " The wild white radish " R. sylvestris, radice albente. His figure of this is a two-seeded constricted and pointed pod; the leaves lyrate, but the segments all connected: " It is found in some parts of Sussex, principally near the sea-coast. . . . Eay calls it R. maritimus flore luteo, siliquis articulatis secundum longitudinem eminenter striatis. One would think that the garden radish was raised from this, but for the colour of the flower " (p. 243). He then describes the garden radish, R. vulgaris; the round, black radish, R. radice rotundo nigro ; and, lastly, the long, jagged-leaved, black radish, R. foliis laciniatis radice longo nigro. The last two are figured, the foliage being very distinct; but the pods are similar to those of the first mentioned. Hill says that the garden radish and the last-nam.ed are natives of Spain; the round, black radish, of Italy. With regard to the colours of the flowers of the Spanish-Italian varieties, the flowers are white with a tinge of purple or red, some more, some less. The pods are jointed in all. Taking Miller's " Dictionary " as an example, the author mentions R. satiuus and three others as constant varieties, and R. Raphanistrum as distinct. It is called " the white-flowering Charlock with a jointed pod." He also observes that " the small round-rooted radish is not very common in England, but in many parts of Italy it is the only sort cultivated." Nineteenth Century. — In the " Prodromus Syst. Nat." of A. P. de Oandolle (1824) we find seven species described, as well as two doubtful ones. Of R. Raphanistrum there are three varieties, with VOL. XXXVI. A A 350 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. white, yellow, and purplish flowers ; while R. maritimus flowers are yellow, and scarcely veined. From the foregoing abbreviated descriptions it will be seen how all the characters relied upon are variable, as Bentham observes; and, judging by the figures of the siliquas, they certainly are constricted, but in that of Tournefort the constrictions are much reduced under culti- vation, so that it does not appear surprising that they should vanish altogether. R. maritimus, being a South European type, will account for the tenderness sometimes shown in the radish; so that the general result appears to be that radishes have been raised in many countries j from the local sub-varieties of this variety of R. Raphanistrum.'^ Fig. 122. — Wild Eadish {Eaphanus Ea2)lianistruin). "With regard to the two principal forms of the root of the garden radish, the long, spindle-shaped and the globular turnip-formed, M. Oarriere describes his experiments with the wild species Raphanus Raphanisirum, L. (fig. 122), growing them from seed in. two very different soils during five consecutive years. Some were grown at Pans in a light soil, others in the country in a firmer or strong soil, argilla- ceous and calcareous. At Paris the long form prevailed almost entirely. It was just the contrary'- elsewhere ; the tu])erous form was most abun- * The last seven paragraphs are quoted from the Gardeners^ CJironicle, June 25, 1898, p. 389. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF OUR GARDEN VEGETABLES. 351 dant. At Paris the colour was rose or white; while the others were of a deep violet, and some had a pronounced brown colour or were nearly black, like the Alsace Navew ; but there were pretty well all colours and forms * (figs. 123, 124). Eampion. Campanula Rapunculus, L., is a native of England, but considered as doubtfully wild by Hooker. It occurs from Denmark southwards, in N. Africa and Siberia. Whether this root was known to the ancients is not certain. Dodoens (1559) says the Greek name was Gongule Fig. 123. — Long Form of Eadish raised by M. Carriers from the Wild Eadish